Language Skills Speaking Joanne Maria 2007 11 24 1

Language Skills: Speaking Joanne & Maria 2007/11/24 1

Teaching Oral Skills Introduction 1. It’s a challenging language skill. 2. Fluent speech contains reduced forms, slang and idioms. 3. Theory of communicative competence proposes( Hymes, 1972). * Grammatical competence * Sociolinguistic competence * Discourse competence * Strategic competence 2

Impact of communicative competence theory 1. It’s not only focus on grammatical competence today. 2. Fluency (Hedge, 1993) * Speech without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitation. * “Natural language use” means that negotiation of meaning is a major goal. 3. Multiple skills should be taught whenever possible. 4. Students take responsibility for their own learning. 3

The Oral Skills Class ＊Low level adults The teacher may need to find L 1 speakers to help students to get information on student experience, educational background, and needs. 4

＊Nonacademic adults Focus on survival English and basic communication functions based on a strong structural component. 5

＊Academic learners *Need to practice with different sorts of activities. * Academic ESL students need most is extensive authentic practice in class participation. 6

Activities Discussion 1. Students get into pairs or groups. 2. Introduce a topic through reading, listening and so on. 3. There should be guidance before discussing. 4. There is no one" right way”. 5. Each student should have a specific responsibility. 6. Students need to clear about “what”, “why” and “what outcome”. 7

Speeches ＊Prepared speech *Topic for speeches will vary depending on the level of the student. *The teacher can provide the structure of speech or time limits and students select the content. 8

* Evaluation 1. Peer evaluation 2. Self- evaluation 3. All- evaluation through video taping 4. Teacher evaluation * Categories of performance 1. Delivery 2. Interaction/ rapport with audience 3. Content and organization 4. Language skills 9

＊Impromptu speech 1. Give students more actual practice with speaking the language, forces them to think, and speak without a note or memorization. 2. Using hesitation markers and giving unprepared response. 10

Role Plays 1. It’s suitable for practicing the sociocultural variations. 2. Steps (Olshtain and Cohen, 1991) * Check what students already know about the activity. * Teach some model dialogues. * Perform a role play. 11

Conversation 1. Unplanned conversation. 2. There is no need to require a detail transcript. 3. Some grammar or pronunciation mistakes could be ignored. 4. Examples * Interview with a native speaker * Survey 5. Tape-record conversations could be a way for evaluation. 12

Audiotaped Oral Dialogue Journals 1. One format where practice with fluency and attention to accuracy can be accomplish at the same time. 2. Example The teacher start the oral journal on the tape by giving some directions for a assignment and suggesting a topic. 13

3. It’s nice to make some comments about the context after returning the tapes to students. 4. Problems * In small class: It’s unrealistic for teacher to listen tapes on regular basis. * In large class: It makes this unfeasible. 5. Solutions * The tapes can be turned in on a rotating basis. * Students can switch tapes with each other. 14

Other Accuracy-Based Activity 1. A drill using the particular structure may prove useful as the first step towards more communicative output. 2. Example 1 * Wong(1994) recommends an activity called “Two. Minute Conversations”: “If I were (a/an)_____, I would be (a/an)_____, because…” Students become acquainted with each other by taking on the identity of various things through this activity. 15

3. Example 2 * Structured interview Students talk to their classmate by using interview form, using of wh-and /or yes/no questions. 4. During the accuracy-based activity, errors can be ignored. Unless the errors impede communication. 16

Teaching Oral Skills in an EFL Context * Problems 1. Students speak the same L 1 and English is not used outside the classroom. 2. Prohibited from L 1; lack of motivation. 3. Curriculum does not stress speaking skills. 4. Teachers are not native speakers * Solutions 1. Authentic, motivating, varied activities. 2. Assign out-of-class learning activities. 3. Invite native English speakers to the class. 17

Assessment . 1. Evaluation of classroom performance * Extended chunks of organized speech. * The input given to students, whether it be visual, aural, or interactive, be consistent for all examinees. * Oral assessment should be reported using terms that are clearly defined for and understandable to students. 2. Large scale oral examinations such like BULATS, TSE and so on. 18

Conclusion 1. Focus on the sociolinguistic and sociocultural dimensions. 2. Content- and task-based teaching remain important of oral skills. 3. The impact of developments in technology. 19

Developing Children’s Listening and Speaking in ESL Introduction 1. Children are likely to play with language. 2. Need repeating and movement. 20

How children differ from adults as language learners Materials 1. Books, Papers Adults Blackboard, Overhead projectors Magnets, art supplies Hamsters, Stuffed animals Children costumes 2. Activities need to be child centered and communication should be authentic. 21

3. Principles * Meaning, not correctness. * The value of the activity, not the value of the language. * Collaboration and social development. * A rich context, including movement, the senses, objects and pictures, and so on. * Integrating the four skills. *Depend on their age and interest. *A tool for children to use for their own social and academic ends. * Authentic communication not as an object of analysis. 22

How ESL Children Approach Oral Language 1. Children enjoy rhythmic and repetitive language. 2. Children enjoy repeating a word or an utterance in a play situation. 23

Techniques and Resources 1. Using Songs, Poems, and Chants * Chants usually have a strong and catchy rhythm or are written for two arts. (Example: You Did It Again. ) * The value of children’s folklore should fit with your own and every student. *Advantages: learn vocabulary through rhythm, intonation, and stress; produce grammar structure ; expose to culture. 24

* Choose you like; fit with learners, course or topic; modernize archaic songs; with movement. * The sequence of teaching: 1. Teach vocabulary and content with pictures and objects. 2. Reciting poem or chant; sing or play the tape. 3. Recite one line at a time, and learner repeat after you. 4. Recite the whole text. 5. The context has two parts; you take one, and learners take the other. 6. Divide learners into two groups: let them perform. 7. Practice about five minutes a day. 8. Use costumes and props. 9. Present to other children. 25

2. Dramatic Activities * Children can be engaged in a lesson through drama easily. * Sequence 1. read original story 2. read the script aloud 3. assign children to each part 4. let children make costume and props 5. ask children make up their own story 26

3. Storytelling * Storytelling can develop “more efficient listening , more fluent speaking and the ability to read and write easily and competently” (Garvie, 1990). * With a picture book; puppets or dolls and so on. * Activities 1. Recite: choose a story students memorize their own sentence make sentence in order recite 2. Retell: one by one 3. Chain story: One student begin a story and others take turns adding sentences. 27

4. Gesture and Movement * Children need to move around more than adults do. * Teacher can combine gesture and movement with songs, poem and so on. * For example, teacher can say yes by raising one hand no by looking down at the floor. * With young children, teacher can break up 5~10 mins for 1~2 mins of physical exercise or dancing. 28

5. Total Physical Response (TPR) * TPR(Asher 1969) fits with in Natural Approach (Krashen and Terrell 1983). Grammar is not overtly taught, the focus is on comprehension, and input is supposed to be comprehensible. *Teacher commands students to do some movement or models them. Gradually students are able to carry out a variety of commands such as “stand up” , “touch your head” and so on. 29

6. Total Physical Response (TPR) Storytelling *A method includes action, pantomime and other techniques. * Ex: 1. Teacher teach vocabulary of the story through the gesture. 2. Teacher tell mini-story to students with gestures. 3. Tell another mini-story which is related to before. 4. Tell story by themselves while others act it out. 5. Tells a main story which students later retell and revise. 6. Create their own stories. *In the second, or third year, grammar is taught by telling the stories from another point of view. Requiring the learner to change tenses, pronouns, and so on. 30

7. Teaching Grammar * When children develop their oral language, you will notice many grammatical errors. *In Unties States, where many teachers favor the Natural Approach, errors are often not necessary to correct. *Strategies: 1. Ignore the errors 2. Make a mental note 3. Rephrase the sentence 4. Rephrase and expand 5. Present a lesson to a group or the whole class later on 31

Summary * Many activities give children oral language practice such as discussions, interviews and so on. * ESL instruction needs to meet children’ levels. * Children need to learn through movement and gestures. * Oral language needs to go along with four skills that they nourish each other. 32

Teaching Pronunciation 33

Foreword Three goals of teaching pronunciation (Goodwin) 1. To enable the learners to understand be understood 2. To build their confidence in entering communicative situations 3. To enable them to monitor their speech based on input from the environment 34

Introduction Pronunciation is the language feature to identify speakers as non-native. Pronunciation instruction should be taught as communicative interaction along with other aspects (pragmatic meaning and nonverbal communication) Teachers have to know which features should be taught and which communicative situation should be used 35

Setting Realistic Goals (Morley, 1999) 1. Functional Intelligibility 2. Functional communicability 3. Increased Self-confidence 4. Speech Monitoring Abilities 36

Setting Realistic Goals (Morley, 1999) 1. Functional Intelligibility: Listeners will not be confused if the language is spoken with an accent. -- Ts do not ask the learners to eliminate their L 1 accent to learn the new L 2 37

Setting Realistic Goals (Morley, 1999) 2. Functional communicability Learners have abilities to communicate successfully in the specific situations. To prompt learners needs and interests by using a survey at the beginning the information will guide Ts and Ss to choose the right feature to emphasize choose the right content to practice 38

Setting Realistic Goals (Morley, 1999) 3. Increased self-confidence ability to speak and be understood design the situations the learners will actually face Ts have to be careful from controlled to free production in the practice activities Provide consistent targeted feedback 39

Setting Realistic Goals (Morley, 1999) 4. Speech monitoring abilities Let learners pay attention to their own speech and others’ speeches to make better use of the input the learners receive learners hear and try to imitate by attending to certain aspects of the speech 40

A Description of the sound system of English Traditional (bottom-up) : sound → syllables → phrases and thought groups → extended discourse the steam of speech (top-down): sound system is used naturally 41

A Description of the sound system -- Features of Thought Groups Thought Group -- include tone units, breath groups and intonation units we use pauses to divide our speech into manageable chunks It represents a meaningful grammatical unit 42

Features of Thought Groups -- Marked by Pauses However, → learners always don’t pause at appropriate junctures → the common error —pause too frequently Ex: I was speaking to him / on the phone yesterday. (O) I was speaking to / him on the / phone yesterday. (X) 43

Features of Thought Groups -- Marked by Pauses Gilbert(1987) -- makes use of ambiguous phrases to show pausing in different places can cause a change in meaning Ex: 1. Alfred said / the boss is stupid 2. Alfred / said the boss / is stupid Who is really stupid? 44

Features of Thought Groups -- Marked by Pauses Influenced by the speaker’s speed -- faster speaker pause less frequently and have fewer, longer thought groups -- pause more frequently to emphasize the ideas more strongly ex: politicians or clergy My fellow citizens/this/is/our/moment. -- a frustrated parent might say like this: Come/here/right/now! 45

Features of Pronunciation -- Prominence include nuclear stress, tonic syllable, focus words, emphasis and primary phrase stress there is usually one syllable emphasized and be used by the way of extending and moving the pitch up or down Ex: I was SPEAKing to him/ on the PHONE yesterday. 46

Features of Pronunciation -- Prominence Depends on context but generally represents information in three ways： 1) Deliver “new” information： Ex：( I got a postcard from Sue) → She’s in MEXico. 2) In contrast to some other previously mentioned information： Ex：(Are you leaving at five thirty? ) → No, SIX thirty. 47

Features of Pronunciation -- Prominence 3) Simply the most meaningful or important item in the phrase： Ex：He’s studying eco. NOMics. should be presented and taught only in context Ex：What are you doing? I am reading. Who’s reading? I am reading. Why aren’t you reading? I am reading. → What word will you emphasize? Each question provided a context for the reply. 48

Features of Pronunciation -- Intonation The melodic line or pitch pattern The pitch movement within an intonation contour occurs on the prominent element Ex：A: Are you READy yet? B: No, I need to call DAVE first. A: Why’s THAT? B: Because HE’S the one who’s giving us a LIFT! 49

Features of Pronunciation -- Intonation is one factor among many that communicate an attitude. To express emotion—word choice, grammatical structure, facial expressions, body movement and the situational context. 50

Features of Pronunciation -- Rhythm longer syllables (stressed) & shorter syllables (unstressed) happen in speech ”stress-timed” – with stresses or beats occurring at regular intervals Ex: ‧ ‧ ‧ She would’ve liked to have gone to the movie. (11 syllables but only 3 beats) 51

Features of Pronunciation -- Rhythm ”syllable-timed” (ex: French, Japanese) -- each syllable has the same timing and length It’s important to highlight certain syllables in English through syllable length, vowel quality and pitch 52

Features of Pronunciation -- Rhythm Which words should be stressed or unstressed? -- stressed: content words ex: nouns, main verbs, adjectives --unstressed: function words ex: articles, pronouns, prepositions 53

Features of Pronunciation -- Rhythm -- “ALL” the syllables (content words) that receive stress Prominence -- “One” emphasized syllable Ex: ․ ․ She attends the University of MARyland. (3 stressed syllables, the third is prominence) 54

Features of Pronunciation -- Rhythm Chelas Flores (1998) teachers help students by highlighting rhythmic patterns apart from words and meaning. 1) use written (on the board) -- dots (short syllables) ․ -- dashes (long syllables) ― 2) pattern orally -- ti (unstressed syllables) -- TA (stressed syllables) -- TAA (prominent element) 55

Features of Thought Groups -- Rhythm Chelas Flores (1998) 1) teacher pronounce some patterns let students point out on the board (draw the Ss’ attention, and help them internalize) 2) use the actual phrases to let Ss distinguish and practice meaningful phrases EX: Ss hear: Ss circle: 1. A little one 2. Lots to be done 3. It’s marvelous a. ․― ․․ b. ― ․․― What’s your answer? 56

Features of Pronunciation -- Reduced Speech two ways to weaken unstressed syllable (reduce speech): 1) shorten unstressed syllables 2) relax the mouth and use less energy or muscular tension -- to let learners speak quickly and help Ss maintain more or less regular interval between stressed syllables. → reduced vowels the most common reduced vowels -- schwa / / to relax your jaw or spread or round lips ex: banana, police 57

Features of Pronunciation -- Linking general term for the adjustments speakers make between words in connected speech Ex: Why don’t you find out ? or Why don’t you fine doubt ? → by shifting the final consonant of find to the next syllable, which begins with a vowel, to pronounce more easily 58

Features of Pronunciation -- Linking to avoid losing important information by leaving off an ending -- need to focus learner’s attention on the linked sound Ex: distinction between present and past Present: They live in Miami. Past: They live-din Miami. 59

Features of English Consonants Three dimensions: commonly illustrated in a consonant chart 1) Place of articulation (where the sound is made) ＊usually illustrated in a diagram called “The Organs of Speech” 2) Manner of articulation (how the sound is made) 3) Voicing (whether the vocal cords are vibrating or not) 60

Features of English Consonants To teach consonants, we need to decide whether phonetic symbols are necessary. → Some letters are the same as the phonetic representation ex: p /p/, d /d/ → but, certain sounds are not Ex: this /ð/, thumb /θ/ 61

Features of English Consonants the second consideration: -- various articulation of a consonant depend on the environment Ex: the word “paper” 1 st /p/ is aspiration sound 2 nd /p/ is not → we call this as “positional variation”, it reflects sound system rules that even native speakers are not aware of this 62

Features of English Consonants the third consideration -- Clustering: two, three or four consonants in sequence → a challenge to learners → learners should know how consonant cluster function in English and there acceptable cluster reduction. Ex: “facts” may be pronounced as fax, delete the /t/ without any loss of intelligibility 63

Features of English Consonants Learners usually have difficulty with sounds that don’t exist in their L 1. Ex: two th , l and r sounds -- despite these difficulties, instruction should focus on sounds in context 64

Features of English Vowels the syllable core the sound within the syllable that resonates can be lengthened or shortened can constitute a syllable or a word pronounce with smooth airflow distinguished by tongue position, tongue and jaw height, degree of lip rounding and tension of the muscles 65

Features of English Vowels The challenges in teaching vowels: 1) English has more vowels than others. (English has 14, Japanese has 5 vowels) 2) a lot of variation in vowels between dialects ex: doll / ball (same? ) 3) glide movement (diphthongs: ie, oa) 66

Features of English Vowels The challenges in teaching vowels: 4) be spelled in many different ways ex: /o/ → ow or oa, /i/ → ea or ee 5) usually reduced in unstressed syllables ex: madam motor → relaxing of the articulators 67

Features of English Vowels Morley (1979, p. 116) -- helps learners associate each vowel with a key word teaching instruction 1) show each vowel with key word and numbers 2) repeat key words until Ss remember 3) without any phonetic symbols → easier to refer the key or the number rather than the phonetic symbols 68

Features of English Word Stress A multisyllabic word has more than one stressed syllable → primary stress(․), secondary stress(․) and almost no stress(․) Ex: ․ ․ com mun i ca tion ․ 69

A Communicative Framework for Teaching Pronunciation 1) Description and Analysis --Ts show when and how it occurs -- use charts (consonant, vowel or organs of speech) -- present the rules inductively or deductively ex: present the rule of –ed endings or provide multiple examples and let learners figure out the rules by themselves 70

A Communicative Framework for Teaching Pronunciation 2) Listening Discrimination -- contextualized minimal pair discrimination exercise (Gilbert, 1993, p. 20) ex: T or S say “a’’ or “b”, the listener responds with the appropriate answer a. He wants to buy my boat. b. He wants to buy my vote. → responds: Will you sell it? Or That’s against the law! 71

A Communicative Framework for Teaching Pronunciation 2) Listening Discrimination -- Ss listen rising or falling intonation and choose which they hear Ex: Sam finished it you can’t Rising Falling 72

A Communicative Framework for Teaching Pronunciation 2) Listening Discrimination -- using a transcript with a short listening passage -- learners mark the pauses and/or circle the prominent elements they hear -- T focus on one or two features at a time -- T focus learners’ attention directly 73

A Communicative Framework for Teaching Pronunciation 3) Controlled Practice -- learner’s attention focused on form -- poems, rhymes, dialogues, dramatic monologues are used -- contextualized minimal pair activities can be combined 74

A Communicative Framework for Teaching Pronunciation 4) Guided Practice -- learner’s attention focus on meaning, grammar, communicative intent -- T shift to a new cognitive task by developing a continuum of bridging activities → to maintain control of the pronunciation target ex: a memory activity while practicing 75

A Communicative Framework for Teaching Pronunciation 5) Communicative Practice -- a balance between form and meaning -- examples include: role plays, debates, interviews, simulations and drama scenes -- learners’ attention should focus on one or two features at a time -- set an objective, and let Ss know in advance 76

Some Teaching Techniques 1) Contextualized Minimal Pair Practice -- Bowen (1975) the first one -- not isolate the word, stress in meaningful context Ex: individual sound contrast This pen leaks. Then, don’t write with it. This pan leaks. Then, don’t cook with it. 77

Some Teaching Techniques 1) Contextualized Minimal Pair Practice Ex: word stress (Gilbert, 1993) Is it elementary? No, it’s advanced. Is it a lemon tree? No, an orange tree. Ex: prominence (Gilbert, 1993) I didn’t know she was out there. I thought she was inside. 78

Some Teaching Techniques 2) Cartoons and Drawings -- to cue production of sentences or story for showing -- use humorous cartoon stories to illustrate short plays -- let learners read analyze What’s going on here? What’s funny? 79

Some Teaching Techniques 3) Gadgets and Props -- to help learners understand stressed and unstressed syllables -- use a thick rubber band (Gilbert, 1994) → stretch widely for stressed syllables relax for unstressed syllables -- use kazoos to highlight intonation patterns → catch Ss’ attention on the melody of speech -- use cuisenaire rods (often used in the Silent Way) → longer rod for stressed; shorter one for unstressed 80

Some Teaching Techniques 4) Rhymes, Poetry, and Jokes -- let learners hear and feel the rhythm → Graham’s Jazz Chant series -- let learners learn pronunciation and spelling at the same time → Vaughan-Rees (1991) devised poems to illustrate and reinforce spelling rules -- to illustrate and practice linking and reduced → Noll (1997) uses knock-knock jokes 81

5) Drama Some Teaching Techniques -- effective tool to practice various components of communicative competence -- Stern (1980): → use eight-ten mins. drama scenes, two roles → drama reading, read with feeling → T helps Ss model the line, repeat and draw attention → videotape Ss’ performing, interviewed by the audience and then perform one more time 82

Some Teaching Techniques 6) Kinesthetic Activities -- use basic hand gesture → syllables: number of fingers, tap out the number → stress: open hand (stressed) and closed hand (unstressed) → linking: thumb and forefingers between both hands →intonation: sweeping hand motion for rising and falling 83

Some Teaching Techniques 6) Kinesthetic Activities -- learners stand up and take a step at the same time with each stressed syllable (Grant, 2000) → repeat at least three times → internalize the rhythm -- mirroring (Acton, 1984) → imitate the body movements, gestures, facial expressions via video or face-to-face → help fossilized learners 84

An Integrated Whole-body Approach to Teaching Pronunciation combined spoken fluency and use of drama to make clear and successful interaction -- use short videotaped interactions for beginning -- may also cut the scene from film or TV (with copyright permission) or the actual situation the learners will face 85

An Integrated Whole-body Approach to Teaching Pronunciation instruction: videotaped interactions 1) analyze the video (repeat listening) and mark pauses, prominence, intonation 2) Intensive speaking practice 3) T provide errors on choral and individual repetition 4) Ss work in pairs to rehearse the interaction 5) T videotape the performing 6) Ss review and fill in self analysis sheet 7) Ss perform similar interaction to see if they can transfer what they have learned 86

Media and Technology 1) Audio -- the basic way to record learners’ sound or speech for reviewing -- without the feedback, tutoring can’t be effective -- with the oral journals, Ss can locate error patterns, review the instructor’s feedback, direct their own learning and note progress over time. 87

Media and Technology 2) Video -- more and more commercial videotapes programs focus on pronunciation -- recording can provide motivation peer target models for learners -- copyright law for taping from the film and TV shows → clips from a film; off-air recordings -- video camera is good for recording S’s performances 88

Media and Technology 3) Computer Software -- vary in scope, price, type of hardware needed, platform and ease of use -- the visual feedback is hard for Ss to interpret or is inconclusive -- to be effective, learners must be trained to use -- like a traditional language lab -- http: //osu. orst. edu/dept/eli/june 1998. html the website for teaching pronunciation 89

Media and Technology 4) Internet -- provides a continually expanding number of websites for pronunciation instruction -- using voice-encoding technology, the instructor can email sound files back and forth with Ss → decrease the need for exchanging tapes -- the main problem is access → the more interactive the site, the more powerful hardware and plug-ins need (a sound card, headphones, speakers and a microphone) 90

Assessment 1) Diagnostic Evaluation -- the most common form is to use a diagnostic passage and a free speech sample Ø Learners read the passages of features and sounds Ø Learners are prompted by a topic, a series of questions or an illustration Ø Learners should have time to response without writing or reading it out Ø Teacher evaluate by an oral interview recording 91

Assessment 2) Ongoing Feedback -- gives learners a sense of progress and point out where to improve -- learners gain confidence with progress --three ways to provide ongoing feedback 1. Self-Monitoring -- to point out the errors silently helps the learners self-correct 92

Assessment 2) Ongoing Feedback 1. Self-Monitoring -- three ways to cue correction Ø Gestures Ø Pronunciation correction signs →signs can be placed around the room ex: -ed -s linking stress intonation Ø Charts → hang the large version chart in the room ex: a vowel chart 93

Assessment 2) Ongoing Feedback 1. Self-Monitoring -- to record learner’s speech with audio or video format -- learners monitor their performance with a selfanalysis sheet -- transcribe the speech by themselves first -- listen and work with the script, mark the errors Ø it is particularly effective 94

Assessment 2) Ongoing Feedback 2. Peer Feedback -- in traditional minimal pair activity → four members better than two → the first speaker reads and others listen -- in a role play → two members in a group →record on tape, transcribe together, fill in the analysis form 95

Assessment 2) Ongoing Feedback 3. Teacher Feedback -- during the class: hand gesture and pronunciation correction signs -- out of the class: audiocassettes or an email sound files exchange 96

Assessment 2) Ongoing Feedback 3. Teacher Feedback -- the guidelines to correct errors: Ø cause a breakdown in communication Ø occur as a pattern Ø relate to the pronunciation points we are teaching -- the errors that learners make let Ts know what to teach 97

Assessment 3) Classroom Achievement Tests -- evaluate learners’ progress → more focus on diagnostic assessment -- similar with classroom teaching tasks → to reduce the effect of an unfamiliar format on learner performance -- Oral performance should be recorded → easy to evaluate & learners can review and revise 98

Conclusion The goals of teaching pronunciation Ø to understand be understood Ø build their confidence in entering communicative situations Ø to monitor their speech based on input from the environment So, now, we know how to respond their pronunciation needs in a systematic and principled way! 99

Speaking 100

Elements of speaking Language features • Connected speech: Sounds are modified, omitted, added, or weakened. • Expressive devices: Including stress, speed, volume, physical, non-verbal expression and so on, they convey meanings. • Lexis and grammar: Teachers should supply various phrases to make students can produce in different situation. • Negotiation language: Effective speaking benefits from clarification and negotiatory language. 101

Mental/social processing • Language processing: effective speakers need to able to process language in their own heads and put it into coherent order. • Interacting with others: speaking involves a good deal of listening, an understanding of how others are feeling, and a knowledge of how linguistically to take turns. • (On-the-spot) information processing: we need to process the information they tell us the moment we get it. 102

Classroom speaking activities Acting from a script • Teachers can ask students to act out scenes from plays or textbooks and write by themselves. • Not to choose the shyest student first and create an atmosphere in the class. • Give students time to rehearse. • Monitor students’ attention to appropriate stress, intonation, and speed. • Ensure that acting out is both a learning and a language producing activity. 103

Communication games • Communication games depend on an information gap. • Example 1: “Twenty Questions”-The team has to use only “yes/No” questions to guess the answer. • Example 2: “Call My Bluff” – involves 2 teams. 104

Discussion Type 1. Buzz group: students discuss quickly in small groups before they are asked to speak in public. 2. Instant comment: introduce a topic in class and nominate students to say their opinions. 3. Debate: choose a controversial topic and let students begin to argue, such as “ balloon debate”. 4. Decision making: force students to reach a decision. * 105

Prepared talks • A student makes a presentation on a topic of their own choice. • Such talks are not spontaneous conversation; • prepared and “writing-like” • Students should speak from notes than a script. 106

Questionnaires • A design that questioner and respondent have something to say to each other. • may encourage the use of repetitive language patterns • Ss can design by themselves, and T help them in process. • The results can form the basis for written work, discussions, or prepared talks 107

Simulation and role-play • Students “simulate” a real-life encounter. • characteristics: 1. Reality of function: not as students, but as real participants in the situation. 2. A simulated environment: the classroom is an airport check-in area, for example. 3. Structure: students must be given the necessary information to carry out the simulation effectively. • Advantages: *fun and motivating. * allow hesitant students be more forthright *allow students use a much wider range of language 108

The Roles of the Teacher • Prompter : help, support, force some frustrated learners to stop their sense of frustration • Participant : to be good animators when asking Ss to produce; ensure continuing student engagement; not participate too much • Feedback Provider : give feedback based on the particular situation 109

Speaking lesson sequences Example 1: Experts • choose some students to be experts • others ask experts what they want to know • each expert only says one word at a time Question: How do fish breath? Expert 1: The Expert 2: answer Expert 3: to Expert 4: this Expert 1: question Expert 2: is Expert 3: an Expert 4: answer Expert 1: that … 110

Example 2: Films • questionnaires about films Name of film Tick if seen Good(☆☆ ), satisfactory(☆ ), Bad (x) or very bad (xx) 111

Example 3: Whose line is it anyway? • Two students represent some identity. • Rest of the class suggest their occupations by asking “who”, “where”, and “what” questions. • Teacher can give cards that describe how the two students speak, such as polite or angrily, and the class guess what word that participant was given. 112

Example 4: Rooms in a house * a family who is going to move into a house * decide which bedroom would be suitable for each member of the family * belong to discussion activity 113

Example 5: Travel agent * students in pair pretend a customer and a travel agent * students are given time to study their information * compare and discuss their performance by recording 114

Thanks for your attention! 115