Language & Diplomacy Malta, March 2011 Dr Biljana Scott
Context & Inference Duane Michals Things are Queer
Context & Inference Elliott Erwitt Eugene Manos
Context & Inference Spencer Platt, 2006
Inference Nick Ut, S Vietnam, 1972 Charlie Cole, Beijing, 1989
Anthony Suau, S Korea, 1987 Marc Riboud, USA, 1960 s Oded Balilty, 2007 Luiz Vasconcelos, Brazil, June 2008
Inference Eugene Smith, Minimata, 1971 Therese Frare, Aids victim, 1990
Inference The image that ‘shamed’ the world Bosnian Serb camp at Trnopolje, filmed by British crew, 1992.
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Context & Inference ‘headache pill’ versus ‘longevity pill’ Saddam Hussein is a threat to our nation. September 11 changed the strategic thinking for how to protect our country. ‘A mighty empire will be destroyed’ ‘Ibis, redibis nunquam in bello peribis’ UNSCR 1441 provides a final opportunity Power (over/to? ); Laugh (with/at? ); Fear (of/for? ) ‘now this is worth considering’
Context & Inference • That’s not bad • Quite good • Perhaps you would like to think about … I would suggest … • Oh, by the way… / incidentally… • I was a bit disappointed that / it’s a pity you… • Very interesting • Could we consider some other options • I’ll bear it in mind • Please think about that some more • I’m sure its my fault
Context & Inference “Judging by the poems, van Rompuy is not only a charming, attentive and sensitive man, but he’s clearly in the right job. ” (Andrew Motion, Poet Laureate, November 2009)
Language as action Speech Act Theory: Performatives The performance of an act OF saying something (Locutionary act) The performance of an act IN saying something (Illocutionary act) DIRECT vs INDIRECT speech acts John Austin, How To Do Things With Words, 1955 John Searle, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of language, 1969
Politeness Berlusconi and Merkel Likeability (5 Jan 2008) Rath and Macek, Czech republic Nigel Farage on van Rompuy
Politeness: indirectness Admit impingement / Indicate reluctance Indirect speech acts Hedges Counterfactuals & modals Tense I wanted to ask you. . . , did you know. . . will you please… Impersonalise: indefinite pronouns (one, whomsoever) plural pronouns (we: royal, editorial, exclusive, med. ) Passives (the decision has been taken) impersonal verbs (It is considered / required)
Persuasion Rhetoric: the art of persuasion or hot air? Ethos: authority, credibility, evidence Logos: reasoned argument Pathos: emotional appeal
Ethos Caroline Kennedy: you know Daniel Hannan: devalued PM http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=94 l. W 6 Y 4 t. BXs
Persuasion Soft (pathos) - Music: ‘the ring of truth’ connotations - Stories in a capsule: metaphors & connotations Hard (logos) - Definitions and typecasting - Argumentation and fallacies Smart (combination / target the audience) - Manipulating inference - The unsaid: presupposition, ambiguity
Divisiveness OLD/Traditional VS NEW DIPLOMACY - state vs. people power - coercion vs. attraction - imposing vs. convincing - ideologies vs. preferences and perception - secrecy vs. credibility - power-play vs. mutual benefit - self-serving vs. partnerships & networks - directing vs. facilitating - win/lose wars for land vs. win/win for values, stability… Adapted from: Mark Leonard, Going Public. 2000
Cadence of counterbalance Chiasmus (ABBA criss-cross structure) Work to live, don’t live to work The pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; The optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty. Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country (JFK) “I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. ” (MLK)
Music of Persuasion Tricolon (3 reinforcing parts): “I came; I saw; I conquered” My fellow citizens: I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors. (BO Inaugural, 20 January 2009) “. . our special relationship founded upon our shared history, our shared values and, I believe, our shared futures. ” (Gordon Brown to US Congress, 4 March 009)
Soft: Metaphor Aristotle: mastery of metaphor is a measure of genius • Wikileaks as the 9/11 of diplomacy • Internet as a jungle, highway, library, bazaar • The roadmap to peace • The body as a fortress : a time bomb • War on drugs : victims of abuse • Every metaphor is the tip of a submerged model Havel / Obama / Baggini H. O. s
Securing agreement • Common ground - Intersecting & expanding circles • Reframing - Assertion - Pre-emptive ‘not X but Y’ - Rhetorical questions - Appeal to authority; precedent; reason; morality - Appeal to emotion; images; aspiration • Reconfiguration (creative) - Metaphor & humour
Metaphors / Analogies What IS said: how apt is the analogy? How does one measure its aptness? What is NOT said: Are the omissions significant? Can it stand up to ridicule? What ELSE might be said? How much more apt are the alternatives? What IMPACT has it had? Correlation and causation?
‘Jasmine’ / ‘Lotus’ / ‘White’ revolution Colour revolutions: Orange: Ukraine, 2004 Rose: Georgia, 2003 Pink /Tulip: Kyrgyzstan, 2005 Cedar: Lebanon, 2005 Green: Iran, 2009 < Saffron: Burma, 2007 Singing: Baltic States, 1987 < Civil war: Revolution : Rebellion : Revolt : Uprising : ‘Humanitarian disaster in the making’ ?
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Apartheid wall : security fence 7
Soft: Story in a capsule Rebellion Terrorist Honour killing Undocumented Ethnic cleansing Jargon Difficulty Scary movies vs vs civil war freedom fighter misogynist murder illegal immigrant genocide necessary precision opportunity terror-porn
Connotation and translation Q: How would you translate the following terms: soft power public diplomacy outreach governance Q: Is there a difference in meaning from the English?
Connotations and collocations POSITIVE NEGATIVE • soft answer • soft-centred/hearted • soft detergent • soft drink • soft landing • soft sell • to soft pedal • to soft-soap • soft touch • soft option • soft subject • to ‘go soft’/ ‘be soft’
Connotations and collocations UN resolution operative clauses: Notes with appreciation Notes with interest Notes with satisfaction Takes note with appreciation Takes note with satisfaction
Hard: Categories & Definitions Semantic categories • Define: refugee, genocide, terrorist • ‘Who is a civilian? ’ • Labelling and typecasting (the ‘chatter factor’)
Hard: Definitions & Fallacies Semantic categories • Define: refugee, genocide, terrorist • ‘Who is a civilian? ’ • Labelling and typecasting (the ‘chatter factor’) Attack Ads • Logical fallacies // propaganda toolkit
Logos Logical fallacies • Non Sequitur (fallacy of false cause) e. g. Our nation will prevail because God is great. post hoc ergo propter hoc: temporal > causal cum hoc ergo propter hoc: correlation > causation • red herring • appeal to the majority (argumentum ad populum) • appeal to authority (ipse dixit: he himself said it) • appeal to fear (argumentum ad baculum) • slippery slope • false dilemma • bandwagon (what is popular is good / right)
Hard Persuasion: Procrustes / Damastes Procrustean: ‘Fitting the facts to the frame’
Hard Talk techniques • • • Reframe Ignore the question Acknowledge the Q without answering it Question the question Attack the interviewer Decline to answer Make a political point (speaking point) Give an incomplete answer Repeat answer to previous question State the Q has already been answered Apologise
Hard Talk exercise In groups of 3: 1. Interviewee defends the value of their job; and their own suitability for the job. 2. Interviewer challenges them. 3. 3 rd party observes exchange & body language: 4. feeds back.
Smart: Presuppositions 1. We have today therefore pledged to do whatever is necessary to: * restore confidence, growth, and jobs; * repair the financial system to restore lending; * strengthen financial regulation to rebuild trust; * fund and reform our international financial institutions to overcome this crisis and prevent future ones; * promote global trade and investment and reject protectionism, to underpin prosperity; and * build an inclusive, green, and sustainable recovery. G 20 Statement, London, 2 April 2009
Smart: Presuppositions What do you think of Western civilisation? Why does it always rain in Malta? Would you like to know your future? Too many innocents on death row Q: A legal vs legitimate war Q: ‘war on terror’
Implications: war on terror • “Use of "war on terror" implied a fight against a shared single enemy. In fact, the forces of violent extremism remain diverse. Terrorism is a deadly tactic, not an institution or an ideology. ” • “The phrase also implies that the best response to terrorism is a military one, tracking down and killing hardcore extremists. In fact the coalition there could not kill its way out of the problems of insurgency and civil strife. ” David Miliband, January 2009
Smart: Implication ‘Hidden triggers’ in UNSCR 1441 a) ‘Iraq may/will face serious consequences’ as a result of continuous violations b) ‘Iraq is/was in breach of past resolutions’ c) Instances of Iraqi non-compliance are to be recorded, and the UNSC reconvened ‘in accordance with paragraphs 11 and/or 12’. d) ‘Other …facilities … could be / are capable of being used to support the production of chemical agent. . .
Smart: Implication e) The UK September 2003 Iraq Dossier: Iraq’s Programme for Weapons of Mass Destruction. ‘Saddam is prepared to use chemical and biological weapons if he believes his regime is under threat. ’ vs Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction. ‘Saddam is willing to use chemical and biological weapons, including against his own Shia population. ’ f) A legal vs legitimate war (Chilcot Enquiry)
Implication / Signalling Bush "wants to divert attention from his domestic problems. It's a classic tactic. It's one that Hitler used. " (18 September 2002)
• Däubler-Gmelin is made to resign • Condoleeza Rice, then Rumsfeld, say relations with Germany have been 'poisoned‘ • Rumsfeld denies his German opposite (Peter Struck) a meeting in Washington that week • Schröder's letter to Bush on the subject of the analogy is dismissed as 'an explanation rather than an apology‘ • Colin Powell declines to offer Joschka Fischer the ritual post-election congratulations. • Schröder flies to the UK immediately on his election in order to ask Blair to mediate in diplomatic fall-out
Smart: Ambiguity • Drunk Gets Nine Months in Violin Case • Iraqi Head Seeks Arms • Prostitutes Appeal to Pope • Kids Make Nutritious Snacks • New Vaccine May Contain Rabies • New Study of Obesity Looks for Larger Test Group • Include your Children when Baking Cookies • Police Begin Campaign to Run Down Jaywalkers • Red Tape Holds Up New Bridge • Local High School Dropouts Cut in Half
Smart: Ambiguity NARROW: TUAS: Tactical Use of Armed Struggle Totally Un-armed Strategy (1990 s Sinn Féin) BROAD: Legitimate military target / non-combatant reasonable force special and differential treatment A mighty empire shall be destroyed SCOPE: Ibis redibis nunquam in bello peribis Old men, women and children
Repartee Wilde: “I wish I'd said that. ” Whistler: “You will, Oscar, you will” Nancy Astor: “Winston, if you were my husband, I'd put poison in your coffee. ” Churchill: “Nancy, if you were my wife, I'd drink it. ” Noel Coward to Churchill on inviting him to the opening night: “Bring a friend, if you have one. ” Chruchill: “Can’t attend first night, please send ticket for 2 nd night – if you have one”
Stańczyk by Jan Matejko 1514 Rusian capture of Smolensk Naji al-Ali's Handala
Proverbs exercise One participant explains and illustrates an proverb The other attacks and ridicules it: “I couldn’t disagree more” “That is an absurd proposition” “Nothing could be further from the truth” “On what evidence do you say that? ” “Quite on the contrary…” “Surely you’re not suggesting …. ” “How can you possibly believe that…”
Proverbs A chain is no stronger than its weakest link A leopard cannot change his spots A picture is worth a thousand words A problem shared is a problem halved Absence makes the heart grow fonder A house divided against itself cannot stand A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush
Persuasion exercise Give an impassioned talk using an appeal to: • • Fear Honour Solidarity Righteous indignation Contempt Glory Innocence …
Ambiguity 1. ‘A diplomat is an honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country’ (Henry Wotton, 1521 - 1587) 2. ‘immediate withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict’ (UNSCR 242 on 1967 war) • ‘The United States acknowledges that all Chinese on either side of the Taiwan Strait maintain there is but one China and that Taiwan is a province of China’ (Feb 1972 Shanghai Communiqué) 4. To ‘sex up’ a dossier
Ambiguity Rule 51. 3 in Chapter 5 of the Olympic charter: “No kind of demonstration or political, religious or racial propaganda is permitted in the Olympic areas” (pre-2007) “No kind of demonstration or political, religious or racial propaganda is permitted in any Olympic sites, venues or other areas. ” (post-2007)
Ambiguity ‘Both sides agree that discussions between them will begin immediately to settle the question of the return to the October 22 positions in the framework of agreement on the disengagement and separation of forces under the auspices of the UN. ’ Israel / Egypt Six Point Agreement 11 November 1973, Provision B
Egyptian: ‘Both sides agree that discussions between them will begin immediately to settle the question of the return to the October 22 positions in the framework of agreement on the disengagement and separation of forces under the auspices of the UN. ’ VS Israeli ‘Both sides agree that discussions between them will begin immediately to settle the question of the return to the October 22 positions in the framework of agreement on the disengagement and separation of forces under the auspices of the UN. ’ Israel / Egypt Six Point Agreement 11 November 1973, Provision B
Ambiguity Facilitating a political process designed to determine Kosovo's future status, taking into account the Rambouillet accord. UNSCR 1244 Article 11, June 1999
Ambiguity Facilitating a political process designed to determine Kosovo's future status, taking into account the Rambouillet accord. UNSCR 1244 Article 11, June 1999 = to determine K’s future status > designed to determine K’s future status > facilitating smthg designed to determine K’s f status > [aiming/seeking/hoping to] facilitate smthg designed to determine K’s future status
Ambiguity Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Section 3: Rules of Interpretation Articles 31 - ‘ordinary meaning of terms’ • ‘in the light of the treaty’s object and purpose’ • appeals to context (text and beyond) Article 32 ‘Recourse may be had to supplementary means of interpretation … when the interpretation according to article 31: (a) leaves the meaning ambiguous or obscure; or (b) leads to a result which is manifestly absurd or unreasonable. ’
Poetry & Diplomacy • Curiosity, the ‘cheerful energy’ • Heightened language / awareness • Observation • The Unsaid • Aspiration: redress (Heaney’s ‘glimpsed alternative’) ‘One campaigns in poetry, but governs in prose. ’ • Imagination: Compassionate; Creative; Imaginative act of faith Capture the imagination of others • Force & grace: suaviter in modo, fortiter in re
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