KOMPENDIUM KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN - PEMBANGUNAN PENDUGAAN DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN Dikoleksi oleh: Soemarno Pslp-pdklp-ppsub, Malang 2012
LINGKUNGAN HIDUP Kehidupan manusia tidak bisa dipisahkan dari lingkungannya, baik lingkungan alam, lingkungan sosial, dan lingkungan binaan. Makhluk hidup bernapas respirasi) memerlukan oksigen dari udara lingkungan sekitarnya. Manusia makan, minum, menjaga kesehatan, semuanya memerlukan dukungan lingkungan sekitarnya. Lingkungan yang terdiri dari sesama manusia disebut juga sebagai lingkungan sosial. Lingkungan sosial inilah yang membentuk sistem pergaulan yang besar peranannya dalam membentuk kepribadian seseorang. Sumber: http: //afand. abatasa. com/post/detail/2405/lingkungan-hidup-kerusakan-lingkungan-pengertian-kerusakanlinkungan-dan-pelestarian-. htm …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
LINGKUNGAN HIDUP Pengertian lingkungan adalah segala sesuatu yang ada di sekitar manusia yang memengaruhi perkembangan kehidupan manusia baik langsung maupun tidak langsung. Lingkungan bisa dibedakan menjadi lingkungan biotik dan abiotik. Jika kalian berada di sekolah, lingkungan biotiknya berupa teman sekolah, bapak ibu guru serta karyawan, dan semua orang yang ada di sekolah, juga berbagai jenis tumbuhan yang ada di kebun sekolah serta hewan-hewan yang ada di sekitarnya. Adapun lingkungan abiotik berupa udara, meja kursi, papan tulis, gedung sekolah, dan berbagai macam benda mati yang ada di sekitar. Sumber: http: //afand. abatasa. com/post/detail/2405/lingkungan-hidup-kerusakan-lingkungan-pengertian-kerusakanlinkungan-dan-pelestarian-. htm …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
LINGKUNGAN HIDUP Secara khusus, istilah lingkungan hidup digunakan untuk menyebutkan “segala sesuatu yang berpengaruh terhadap kelangsungan hidup segenap makhluk hidup di bumi”. Menurut UU No. 23 Tahun 1997, lingkungan hidup adalah kesatuan ruang dengan semua benda dan kesatuan makhluk hidup termasuk di dalamnya manusia dan perilakunya yang melangsungkan perikehidupan dan kesejahteraan manusia serta makhluk hidup lainnya. Unsur-unsur lingkungan hidup dapat dibedakan menjadi tiga, yaitu: 1. Unsur Hayati (Biotik) Unsur hayati (biotik), yaitu unsur lingkungan hidup yang terdiri dari makhluk hidup, seperti manusia, hewan, tumbuh-tumbuhan, dan jasad renik. Jika kalian berada di kebun sekolah, maka lingkungan hayatinya didominasi oleh tumbuhan. Tetapi jika berada di dalam kelas, maka lingkungan hayati yang dominan adalah teman-teman atau sesama manusia. Sumber: http: //afand. abatasa. com/post/detail/2405/lingkungan-hidup-kerusakan-lingkungan-pengertian-kerusakanlinkungan-dan-pelestarian-. htm…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
LINGKUNGAN HIDUP Unsur-unsur lingkungan hidup dapat dibedakan menjadi tiga, yaitu: 2. Unsur Sosial Budaya Unsur sosial budaya, yaitu lingkungan sosial dan budaya yang dibuat manusia yang merupakan sistem nilai, gagasan, dan keyakinan dalam perilaku sebagai makhluk sosial. Kehidupan masyarakat dapat mencapai keteraturan berkat adanya sistem nilai dan norma yang diakui dan ditaati oleh segenap anggota masyarakat. 3. Unsur Fisik (Abiotik) Unsur fisik (abiotik), yaitu unsur lingkungan hidup yang terdiri dari benda-benda tidak hidup, seperti tanah, air, udara, iklim, dan lain-lain. Keberadaan lingkungan fisik sangat besar peranannya bagi kelangsungan hidup segenap kehidupan di bumi. Bayangkan, apa yang terjadi jika air tak ada lagi di muka bumi atau udara yang dipenuhi asap? Tentu saja kehidupan di muka bumi tidak akan berlangsung secara wajar. Akan terjadi bencana kekeringan, banyak hewan dan tumbuhan mati, perubahan musim yang tidak teratur, munculnya berbagai penyakit, dan lain-lain. Sumber: http: //afand. abatasa. com/post/detail/2405/lingkungan-hidup-kerusakan-lingkungan-pengertian-kerusakan-linkungan-dan-pelestarian. htm…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
KERUSAKAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP Bentuk kerusakan lingkungan hidup dapat dibedakan menjadi dua jenis, yaitu: 1. Bentuk Kerusakan Lingkungan Hidup Akibat Peristiwa Alam Berbagai bentuk bencana alam yang akhir-akhir ini banyak melanda Indonesia telah menimbulkan dampak rusaknya lingkungan hidup. Dahsyatnya gelombang tsunami yang memporak-porandakan bumi Serambi Mekah dan Nias, serta gempa 5 skala Ritcher yang meratakan kawasan DIY dan sekitarnya, merupakan contoh fenomena alam yang dalam sekejap mampu merubah bentuk muka bumi. Peristiwa alam yang berdampak pada kerusakan lingkungan hidup : a. Letusan gunung berapi terjadi karena aktivitas magma di perut bumi yang menimbulkan tekanan kuat keluar melalui puncak gunung berapi. Bahaya yang ditimbulkan oleh letusan gunung berapi antara lain berupa: 1. Hujan abu vulkanik, menyebabkan gangguan pernafasan. 2. Lava panas, merusak, dan mematikan apa pun yang dilalui. 3. Awan panas, dapat mematikan makhluk hidup yang dilalui. 4. Gas yang mengandung racun. 5. Material padat (batuan, kerikil, pasir), dapat menimpa perumahan, dan lain-lain. Sumber: http: //afand. abatasa. com/post/detail/2405/lingkungan-hidup-kerusakan-lingkungan-pengertian-kerusakan-linkungan-dan-pelestarian-
KERUSAKAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP b. Gempa bumi adalah getaran kulit bumi yang bisa disebabkan karena beberapa hal, di antaranya kegiatan magma (aktivitas gunung berapi), terjadinya tanah turun, maupun karena gerakan lempeng di dasar samudra. Manusia dapat mengukur berapa intensitas gempa, namun manusia sama sekali tidak dapat memprediksikan kapan terjadinya gempa. Oleh karena itu, bahaya yang ditimbulkan oleh gempa lebih dahsyat dibandingkan dengan letusan gunung berapi. Pada saat gempa berlangsung terjadi beberapa peristiwa sebagai akibat langsung maupun tidak langsung, di antaranya: 1. Berbagai bangunan roboh. 2. Tanah di permukaan bumi merekah, jalan menjadi putus. 3. Tanah longsor akibat guncangan. 4. Terjadi banjir, akibat rusaknya tanggul. 5. Gempa yang terjadi di dasar laut dapat menyebabkan tsunami (gelombang pasang). Sumber: http: //afand. abatasa. com/post/detail/2405/lingkungan-hidup-kerusakan-lingkungan-pengertian-kerusakan-linkungan-dan-pelestarian-
KERUSAKAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP c. Angin topan terjadi akibat aliran udara dari kawasan yang bertekanan tinggi menuju ke kawasan bertekanan rendah. Perbedaan tekanan udara ini terjadi karena perbedaan suhu udara yang mencolok. Serangan angin topan bagi negara-negara di kawasan Samudra Pasifik dan Atlantik merupakan hal yang biasa terjadi. Bagi wilayah-wilayah di kawasan California, Texas, sampai di kawasan Asia seperti Korea dan Taiwan, bahaya angin topan merupakan bencana musiman. Tetapi bagi Indonesia baru dirasakan di pertengahan tahun 2007. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa telah terjadi perubahan iklim di Indonesia yang tak lain disebabkan oleh adanya gejala pemanasan global. Bahaya angin topan dapat diprediksi melalui foto satelit yang menggambarkan keadaan atmosfer bumi, termasuk gambar terbentuknya angin topan, arah, dan kecepatannya. Serangan angin topan (putting-beliung) dapat menimbulkan kerusakan lingkungan hidup dalam bentuk: 1. Merobohkan bangunan. 2. Rusaknya areal pertanian dan perkebunan. 3. Membahayakan penerbangan. 4. Menimbulkan ombak besar yang dapat menenggelamkan kapal. Sumber: http: //afand. abatasa. com/post/detail/2405/lingkungan-hidup-kerusakan-lingkungan-pengertian-kerusakan-linkungan-dan-pelestarian. htm …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
KERUSAKAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP Badai adalah cuaca yang ekstrem, dapat berupa hujan es dan badai salju hingga badai pasir dan debu. Badai disebut juga siklon-tropis, berasal dari samudera yang suhunya hangat. Badai bergerak di atas laut mengikuti arah angin dengan kecepatan sekitar 20 km/jam. Badai bukan angin-ribut biasa. Kekuatan anginnya dapat mencabut pohon besar dari akarnya, meruntuhkan jembatan, dan menerbangkan atap bangunan dengan mudah. Tiga hal yang paling berbahaya dari badai adalah sambaran petir, banjir bandang, dan angin kencang. Terdapat berbagai macam badai, seperti badai hujan, badai guntur, dan badai salju. Badai paling merusak adalah badai topan (hurricane, yang dikenal sebagai angin siklon (cyclone) di Samudera Hindia atau topan (typhoon) di Samudera Pasifik. (diunduh dari: http: //id. wikipedia. org/wiki/Badai) Sumber: http: //afand. abatasa. com/post/detail/2405/lingkungan-hidup-kerusakan-lingkungan-pengertian-kerusakan-linkungan-dan-pelestarian. htm …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
KERUSAKAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP 2. Kerusakan Lingkungan Hidup karena Faktor Manusia sebagai penguasa lingkungan hidup di bumi berperan besar dalam menentukan kelestarian lingkungan hidup. Manusia sebagai makhluk ciptaan Tuhan yang berakal budi mampu merubah wajah dunia dari pola kehidupan sederhana sampai ke bentuk kehidupan modern seperti sekarang ini. Namun sayang, seringkali apa yang dilakukan manusia tidak diimbangi dengan pemikiran akan masa depan kehidupan generasi berikutnya. Banyak kemajuan yang diraih oleh manusia membawa dampak buruk terhadap kelangsungan lingkungan hidup. 1. 2. 3. Beberapa bentuk kerusakan lingkungan hidup karena faktor manusia, antara lain: Terjadinya pencemaran (pencemaran udara, air, tanah, dan suara) sebagai dampak adanya kawasan industri. Terjadinya banjir, sebagai dampak buruknya drainase atau sistem pembuangan air dan kesalahan dalam menjaga daerah aliran sungai dan dampak pengrusakan hutan. Terjadinya tanah longsor, sebagai dampak langsung dari rusaknya hutan. Beberapa ulah manusia yang baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung membawa dampak pada kerusakan lingkungan hidup antara lain: 1. Penebangan hutan secara liar (penggundulan hutan). 2. Perburuan liar. 3. Merusak hutan bakau. 4. Penimbunan rawa-rawa untuk pemukiman. 5. Pembuangan sampah di sembarang tempat. 6. Bangunan liar di daerah aliran sungai (DAS). 7. Pemanfaatan sumberdaya alam secara berlebihan di luar batas.
KERUSAKAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP 2. Kerusakan Lingkungan Hidup karena Faktor Manusia sebagai penguasa lingkungan hidup di bumi berperan besar dalam menentukan kelestarian lingkungan hidup. Manusia sebagai makhluk ciptaan Tuhan yang berakal budi mampu merubah wajah dunia dari pola kehidupan sederhana sampai ke bentuk kehidupan modern seperti sekarang ini. Namun sayang, seringkali apa yang dilakukan manusia tidak diimbangi dengan pemikiran akan masa depan kehidupan generasi berikutnya. Banyak kemajuan yang diraih oleh manusia membawa dampak buruk terhadap kelangsungan lingkungan hidup. 1. 2. 3. Beberapa bentuk kerusakan lingkungan hidup karena faktor manusia, antara lain: Terjadinya pencemaran (pencemaran udara, air, tanah, dan suara) sebagai dampak adanya kawasan industri. Terjadinya banjir, sebagai dampak buruknya drainase atau sistem pembuangan air dan kesalahan dalam menjaga daerah aliran sungai dan dampak pengrusakan hutan. Terjadinya tanah longsor, sebagai dampak langsung dari rusaknya hutan. Beberapa ulah manusia yang baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung membawa dampak pada kerusakan lingkungan hidup antara lain: 1. Penebangan hutan secara liar (penggundulan hutan). 2. Perburuan liar. 3. Merusak hutan bakau. 4. Penimbunan rawa-rawa untuk pemukiman. 5. Pembuangan sampah di sembarang tempat. 6. Bangunan liar di daerah aliran sungai (DAS). 7. Pemanfaatan sumberdaya alam secara berlebihan di luar batas.
PENCEMARAN UDARA …. . kehadiran satu atau lebih kontaminan di atmosfir dengan kuantitas dan durasi yg menyebabkan gangguan kesehatan thd manusia, kerusakan thd tumbuhan, menyebabkan penyakit thd hewan, kerusakan thd material atau menyebabkan ketidaknyamanan thd kehidupan/material dan mengganggu thd kegiatan keseharian. Pencemaran udara utama: Partikel, SO 2, CO, Ox, NO 2 dan HC Sumber pencemar udara 1. Sumber alam, sumber akibat aktifitas manusia 2. Sumber titik, sumber area 3. Transportasi, pembakaran bhn bkr sbr tdk bergerak, industri, sampah, lain 2 Efek pencemar udara 1. Terhadap manusia 2. Terhadap binatang 3. Terhadap tumbuhan 4. Terhadap material.
PENCEMARAN UDARA Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. Diunduh dari: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_pollution
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN UDARA Konsep dasar pendekatan metodologi untuk melakukan analisis ilmiah dari dampak potensial terhadap kualitas udara akibat usulan proyek/kegiatan Health effects Air pollution is a significant risk factor for multiple health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease, and lung cancer, according to the WHO. The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics. The most common sources of air pollution include particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution have caused approximately 3. 3 million deaths worldwide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_pollution
AIR QUALITY Air quality is defined as a measure of the condition of air relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species or to any human need or purpose. Air quality indices (AQI) are numbers used by government agencies to characterize the quality of the air at a given location. As the AQI increases, an increasingly large percentage of the population is likely to experience increasingly severe adverse health effects. To compute the AQI requires an air pollutant concentration from a monitor or model. The function used to convert from air pollutant concentration to AQI varies by pollutant, and is different in different countries. Air quality index values are divided into ranges, and each range is assigned a descriptor and a color code. Standardized public health advisories are associated with each AQI range. An agency might also encourage members of the public to take public transportation or work from home when AQI levels are high. Most air contaminants do not have an associated AQI. Many countries monitor ground-level ozone, particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide and calculate air quality indices for these pollutants. The AQI can worsen (go up) due to lack of dilution of air emissions by fresh air. Stagnant air, often caused by an anticyclone or temperature inversion, or other lack of winds lets air pollution remain in a local area, leading to haze. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_Quality_Index …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
AIR QUALITY HEALTH INDEX (AQHI) - CANADA The Air Quality Health Index or (AQHI) is a scale designed to help understand the impact of air quality on health. It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution. The Air Quality Health Index also provides advice on how to improve air quality by proposing behavioral change to reduce the environmental footprint. This index pays particular attention to people who are sensitive to air pollution. It provides them with advice on how to protect their health during air quality levels associated with low, moderate, high and very high health risks. The Air Quality Health Index provides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. On occasion, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight, and tomorrow, and provides associated health advice. Risk: Low (1 -3) Moderate (4 -6) High (7 -10) Very high (above 10) Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_Quality_Index …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
AIR QUALITY HEALTH INDEX (AQHI) - CANADA Health Risk Low Moderate High Very high Air Quality Health Index Health Messages At Risk population Enjoy your usual outdoor activities. 1 -3 Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you are experiencing symptoms. 4 -6 *General Population Ideal air quality for outdoor activities No need to modify your usual outdoor activities unless you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation. Reduce or reschedule strenuous Consider reducing or rescheduling activities outdoors. Children and strenuous activities outdoors if you the elderly should also take it experience symptoms such as easy. coughing and throat irritation. 7 -10 Above 10 Avoid strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also avoid outdoor physical exertion. Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors, especially if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_Quality_Index …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
THE AIR POLLUTION INDEX (API) - HONG KONG The Air Pollution Index (API) levels for Hong Kong are related to the measured concentrations of ambient respirable suspended particulate (RSP), sulfur dioxide (SO 2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O 3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) over a 24 -hour period based on the potential health effects of air pollutants. An API level at or below 100 means that the pollutant levels are in the satisfactory range over 24 hour period and pose no acute or immediate health effects. However, air pollution consistently at "High" levels (API of 51 to 100) in a year may mean that the annual Hong Kong "Air Quality Objectives" for protecting long-term health effects could be violated. Therefore, chronic health effects may be observed if one is persistently exposed to an API of 51 to 100 for a long time. "Very High" levels (API in excess of 100) means that levels of one or more pollutant(s) is/are in the unhealthy range. The Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department provides advice to the public regarding precautionary actions to take for such levels. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_Quality_Index …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
THE AIR POLLUTION INDEX (API) - HONG KONG API 0 - 25 26 - 50 51 - 100 - 200 201 - 500 Air Pollution Level Low Medium Health Implications None expected for the general population. High Acute health effects are not expected but chronic effects may be observed if one is persistently exposed to such levels. Very High People with existing heart or respiratory illnesses may notice mild aggravation of their health conditions. Generally healthy individuals may also notice some discomfort. Severe People with existing heart or respiratory illnesses may experience significant aggravation of their symptoms. There may also be widespread symptoms in the healthy population (e. g. eye irritation, wheezing, coughing, phlegm and sore throats). Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_Quality_Index …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
The API - CHINA The API level is based on the level of 5 atmospheric pollutants, namely sulfur dioxide (SO 2), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), suspended particulates (PM 10), carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O 3) measured at the monitoring stations throughout each city. An individual score is assigned to the level of each pollutant and the final API is the highest of those 5 scores. The pollutants can be measured quite differently. SO 2, NO 2 and PM 10 concentration are measured as average per day. CO and O 3 are more harmful and are measured as average per hour. The final API value is calculated per day. The scale for each pollutant is non-linear, as is the final API score. Thus an API of 100 does not mean twice the pollution of API at 50, nor does it mean twice as harmful. While an API of 50 from day 1 to 182 and API of 100 from day 183 to 365 does provide an annual average of 75, it does not mean the pollution is acceptable even if the benchmark of 100 is deemed safe. This is because the benchmark is a 24 hour target. The annual average must match against the annual target. It is entirely possible to have safe air every day of the year but still fail the annual pollution benchmark. API dan Dampak Kesehatan (Daily Targets): Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_Quality_Index …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
The API - CHINA 0 - 50 51 -100 Tingkat Pencemaran Udara Excellent Good 101 -150 Slightly Polluted API 151 -200 201 -250 251 -300 300+ Dampak Kesehatan No health implications Slight irritations may occur, individuals with breathing or heart problems should reduce outdoor exercise. Healthy people will be noticeably affected. People with breathing or heart problems will experience reduced Moderately Polluted endurance in activities. These individuals and elders should remain indoors and restrict activities. Healthy people will be noticeably affected. People with breathing or heart problems will experience reduced Heavily Polluted endurance in activities. These individuals and elders should remain indoors and restrict activities. Lightly Polluted Severely Polluted Healthy people will experience reduced endurance in activities. There may be strong irritations and symptoms and may trigger other illnesses. Elders and the sick should remain indoors and avoid exercise. Healthy individuals should avoid out door activities. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_Quality_Index …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
The AQI - USA The air quality index is a piecewise linear function of the pollutant concentration. At the boundary between AQI categories, there is a discontinuous jump of one AQI unit. To convert from concentration to AQI the equation: is used, where: I = the (Air Quality) index, C = the pollutant concentration, Clow = the concentration breakpoint that is ≤ , Chigh = the concentration breakpoint that is ≥ , Ilow = the index breakpoint corresponding to Clow, = Ihigh the index breakpoint corresponding to Chigh. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_Quality_Index …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
The AQI - USA The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) uses the following AQI: Air Quality Index (AQI) Values Levels of Health Concern Colors 0 to 50 Good Green 51 to 100 Moderate Yellow 101 to 150 Orange 151 to 200 Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups Unhealthy 201 to 300 Very Unhealthy Purple 301 to 500 Hazardous Maroon Red Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_Quality_Index …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
PENDEKATAN KONSEPTUAL STUDI DAMPAK TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN UDARA Tahap 1: Identifikasi dampak rencana kegiatan thd kualitas udara Tahap 4: Prediksi dampak Tahap 2: Deskripsi kondisi lingkungan udara yg ada Tahap 5: Penilaian dampak penting Tahap 3: Informasi peraturan perundangan dan pedoman meng kualitas udara Tahap 6: Identifikasi dan penentuan tindakan mitigasi
PERATURAN PERUNDANGAN • • • PP RI No 41 Th 1999 Ttg Pengendalian pencemaran udara KEPMENLH No KEP-13/MENLH/3/1995 Ttg Baku mutu emisi sumber tidak bergerak PERMENLH No 07 Th 2007 Ttg Baku mutu emisi sumber tidak bergerak bagi ketel uap PERMENLH No 05 Th 2006 Ttg Ambang batas emisi gs buang kendaraan bermotor lama SK Gubernur Propinsi DKI Jakarta No 670/2000/Tanggal 28 Maret 2000 Ttg Penetapan baku mutu emisi sumber tidak bergerak di Propinsi DKI Jakarta Keputusan Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup No. 4 Tahun 2000 Tentang : Panduan Penyusunan AMDAL Kegiatan Pembangunan Permukiman Terpadu Pengembangan permukiman terpadu di Indonesia dikhawatirkan mengekploitasi lahan- lahan agraris, dan lahan yang memiliki fungsi lindung, sehingga menyebabkan kerusakan lingkungan secara makro, secara mikro ada peningkatan kualitas lingkungan akibat tertata dengan baik. Dengan dasar ciri dinamika sistem lingkungan yang bersifat "site specific”, maka jenis dan besaran dampak yang ditimbulkan oleh pengembangan permukiman terpadu diperkirakan berbeda dari satu ekosistem ke ekosistem lainnya. Oleh karena itu, apabila dampak yang ditimbulkan tersebut tidak diantisipasi dan dikelola secara optimal dikhawatirkan hal ini akan menjadi unsur pembangunan sosial ekonomi yang mengabaikan kemampuan sistem alam (ekosistem).
Contoh baku mutu ambien PP No 41 Thn 1999 No Parameter Waktu pengukuran Baku mutu 1 SO 2 (Sulfur dioksida) 2 PM 10 (Partikel < 10 µm) PM 2. 5 (Partikel < 2. 5 µm) TSP (Debu) CO (Karbon Monoksida) 1 Jam 24 Jam 1 Thn 24 Jam 900 µg/Nm 3 365 µg/Nm 3 60 µg/Nm 3 150 µg/Nm 3 24 Jam 1 Thn 1 Jam 24 Jam 65 µg/Nm 3 15 µg/Nm 3 230 µg/Nm 3 90 µg/Nm 3 30000 µg/Nm 3 10000 µg/Nm 3 3 4 Kajian dampak kumulatif merupakan pengembangan lebih lanjut dari metodologi kajian AMDAL. Kajian AMDAL, secara tradisonal, lebih terfokus pada dampak langsung yang terjadi akibat adanya suatu kegiatan (AMDAL skala proyek). Para pengambil keputusan lebih mempertimbangkan dampak yang bersifat langsung, ini karena dampak tersebut bersifat lebih pasti dan lebih mudah dipahami. Sementara itu kajian dampak kumulatif mempunyai batasan ruang dan waktu yang lebih luas, seperti kemungkinan terjadinya hujan asam, perubahan iklim, pemanasan global, kelestarian keanekaragaman hayati dan dampak terhadap pembangunan yang berkelanjutan. CEARC (1986) mengidentifikasi kelemahan AMDAL yang terlalu fokus pada kajian dampak skala proyek, adalah : 1. Mengabaikan efek penambahan (additif effects) akibat adanya pembangunan yang berulang-ulang pada satu ekosistem yang sama; 2. Tidak mengkaji secara mendalam dampak dari suatu kegiatan yang dapat mendorong berkembangnya kegiatan -kegiatan lain disekitarnya; 3. Mengabaikan perubahan kemampuan sistem ekologis dalam menetralisir tingkat pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan yang semakin intensif; 4. Tidak memberikan dorongan untuk mencapai tujuan pengelolaan lingkungan yang lebih komprehensif yang melindungi kepentingan masyarakat luas.
Contoh baku mutu emisi sumber tidak bergerak PERMENLH No 07 Th 2007 No Parameter Baku mutu 1 2 3 4 Partikulat Sulfur dioksida (SO 2) Nitrogen Oksida (N)2) Opasitas 230 mg/m 3 750 mg/m 3 825 ng/m 3 20 % Catatan: 1. Nitrogen Oksida ditentukan sebagai NO 2 2. Volume gas dalam keadaan standar (25 o. C dan tekanan 1 atm 3. Konsentrasi partikulat dikoreksi sebesar 6 % Oksigen 4. Opasitas digunakan sbg indikator praktis pemantauan dikembangkan utk memperoleh hub korelatif dg pengamatan total partikel
Contoh baku mutu emisi sumber tidak bergerak PERMENLH No 07 Th 2007 Dampak kumulatif adalah dampak-dampak terhadap lingkungan yang disebabkan oleh penambahan dampak (incremental impact) dari suatu kegiatan jika ditambahkan dampak yang terjadi akibat kegiatan lain dimasa lalu, saat ini dan dampak yang diperkirakan dapat terjadi dimasa mendatang. Dampak kumulatif dapat terjadi dari dampak-dampak yang secara individual bersifat tidak penting namun jika terjadi pada kerangka waktu dan tempat yang sama dapat berubah menjadi dampak penting. Secara sederhana dampak kumulatif diartikan sebagai penjumlahan dari dampak-dampak individual yang berasal dari kegiatan-kegiatan yang terjadi di masa lalu, saat ini dan rencana kegiatan di masa mendatang, setelah dilakukan penyesuaian karena adanya interaksi komplek antar dampak seperti pada gambar 1 dan 2 Interaksi dampak dapat bersifat countervailing atau sinergis. Dampak bersifat countervailing jika dampak akhir lebih kecil dari penambahan dampak secara individual, sedangkan dampak bersifat sinergis jika dampak kumulatif lebih besar dari penjumlahan dari kontribusi dampak-dampak secara individual.
Faktor emisi N. Irving Sax (1974)* Faktor emisi gas dari proses pembakaran batubara (lb/ton batubara yg dibakar) Pencemar Pembangkit listrik Industrial Rumah tangga dan komersial Aldehida (HCHO) Karbon monoksida (CO) Hidrokarbon (HC) Oksida nitrigen (NO 2) Oksida belerang (SO 2) 0. 005 0. 2 20 38 S 0. 005 3 1 20 38 S 0. 005 50 10 8 38 S Catatan: S = % kandungan belerang * N. Irving Sax (ed), Industrial Pollution, Van Nostrand Reinhold Coy, 1974
Faktor emisi N. Irving Sax (1974)* Catatan: S = % kandungan belerang * N. Irving Sax (ed), Industrial Pollution, Van Nostrand Reinhold Coy, 1974
Faktor emisi (N. Irving Sax (1974)* Emisi partikel dan gas dari kendaraan roda 4 light duty No Pencemar g/mil 1 2 3 4 5 Total organik Partikulat Karbon monoksida (CO) Karbon dioksida (CO 2) Oksida nitrogen (NOx) 3. 07 0. 03 46. 5 640 8. 26 PERATURAN MENTERI NEGARA LINGKUNGAN HIDUP NOMOR 05 TAHUN 2006, TENTANG AMBANG BATAS EMISI GAS BUANG KENDARAAN BERMOTOR LAMA
KETINGGIAN ADUKAN UDARA • Naiknya kolom udara yg menghasilkan pengadukan vertikal yg baik menghasilkan turbulensi berskala besar di atmosfir. Turbulensi ini berlangsung dalam arah 3 dimensi sehingga juga menghasilkan pengadukan horizontal yg baik. • Pencemar yg dilepaskan diatas permukaan tanah akan teraduk hampir uniform sampai ketinggian mixing height, tetapi tidak diatasnya. Maka mixing height merupakan batas dispersi pencemar di atmosfir. • Mixing height dapat ditentukan dengan mengukur temperatur udara diberbagai ketinggian. Puncak awan juga mengindikasikan tingginya mixing height. Di USA mixing height berkisar antara 200 -4000 m diatas permukaan tanah, tergantung kepada waktu dan musim.
KETINGGIAN ADUKAN UDARA Atmosfir dapat mengangkut berbagai zat pencemar ratusan kilometer jauhnya, sebelum menjatuhkannya ke permukaan bumi dalam perjalanan jauh itu atmosfir bertidak sebagai reaktor kimia yang kompleks merubah zat pencemar setelah berinteraksi dengan substansi lain, uap air dan energi matahari. Pada kondisi tertentu sulfur oksida (SOx) dan nitrogen oksida (NOx) hasil pembakaran bahan bakar fosil akan bereksi dengan molekul-molekul uap air di atmosfir menjadi asam sulfat (H 2 SO 4) dan asam nitrat (HNO 3) yang selanjutnya turun ke permukaan bumi bersama air hujan yang dikenal hujan asam. Hujan asam telah menimbulkan masalah besar di daratan Eropa, Amerika Serikat dan di Negara Asia termasuk Indonesia. Dampak negatif dari hujan asam selain rusaknya bangunan dan berkaratnya benda-benda yang terbuat dari logam, juga terjadinya kerusakan lingkungan terutama mengasakan (acidification) danau dan sungai. Ribuan danau airnya telah bersifat asam sehingga tidak ada lagi kehidupan akuatik, dikenal dengan “danau mati”. Proses terjadinya hujan asam (Sumber: http: //www. chem-is-try. org/materi_kimia/kimialingkungan/pencemaran_lingkungan/hujan-asam-acid-rain/)
Model KOTAK Rau & Wooten (1980) (Vol udara)/waktu = h x w x ū [L 3/T] (Berat penc)/waktu = P [M/T] Konsentrasi pencemar diudara: (Berat penc/waktu)/(Vol udara/waktu) b, ū = (Berat penc)/(Vol udara) h Atau w C = P/(h x w x ū) + b [M/L 3] h = mixing height, m w = lebar box, m ū = kecepatan rata angin, m/dt dimana C=Konsentrasi, µg/m 3 P=Berat penc yg diemisikan ke troposfir, µg/dt b=Konsentrasi latar belakang, µg/m 3 Sumber:
Contoh soal model Kotak Diketahui h = 300 m w = 400 m ū = 10 km/jam b = 0. 3 µg/m 3 Hitung konsentrasi ambien Karbon monoksida (CO) yg diemisikan dari 2000 kendaraan roda 4 light duty yang bergerak dalam pengamatan selama 1 jam pada jam puncak dengan kecepatan rata 40 km/jam, jika faktor emisi CO dari kendaraan tersebut 46. 5 g/mil. Temperatur udara 25 o. C dan tekanan udara 1 atm. Penyelesaian ū = 10 km/jam = 10000 m/jam = 2. 78 m/dt Faktor emisi = 46. 5 g/mil = 46500000 µg/mil = 28899938 µg/km P = Emisi CO = 40 km/jam x 28899938 µg/km = 1155997520µg/jam = 321110 µg/dt C = Konsentrasi ambien CO = (P/(hxwxū))+b = (321110/(300 x 400 x 2. 78)) + 0. 3 µg/m 3 = 0. 96 + 0. 3 µg/m 3 = 1. 26 µg/m 3
PENETAPAN ZONA A 1 A 2 B 1 A 3 C 1 An D 1 E 1 Keterangan: Batas kota A 1, …. An Nomor grid b, ū
Isohyet SO 2 dlm 24 jam A 1 A 2 B 1 A 3 C 1 An D 1 E 1 250 300 Konsentrasi SO 2 dlm µg/Nm 3 Isohyet Batas kota 365 b, ū
REAKSI PEMBENTUKAN SULFUR OKSIDE Polusi oleh sulfur okside terutama disebabkan oleh dua komponen gas yang tidak berwarna, yaitu sulfur diokside (SO 2) dan sulfur triokside (SO 3), dan keduanya disebut sebagai SOx. Sulfur diokside mempunyai karakteristik bau yang tajam dan tidak terbakar di udara, sedangkan sulfur triokside merupakan komponen yang tidak reaktif. Pembakaran bahan-bahan organic (sampah organik) yang mengandung sulfur akan menghasilkan kedua bentuk sulfur okside, tetapi jumlah relatif masing-masing tidak dipengaruhi oleh jumlah oksigen yang tersedia. Meskipun udara tersedia dalam jumlah cukup, SO 2 selalu terbentuk dalam jumlah terbesar. Jumlah SO 3 yang terbentuk dipengaruhi oleh kondisi reaksi, terutama suhu, dan bervariasi dari 1 sampai 10% dari total SOx. Gas belerang oksida (SO, SO 2) di udara juga dihasilkan oleh pembakaran fosil (minyak, batubara). Gas tersebut dapat beraksi dengan gas nitrogen oksida dan air hujan, yang menyebabkan air hujan menjadi asam. Maka terjadilah hujan asam. Source: Acid rain and its ecological consequences The Oxford Companion to Global Change; The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclepedia International Journal of Environmental Studies (http: //uhohacidrain. blogspot. com/2011/05/what-causes-acid-rain. html …. . 24/4/2012)
MITIGASI 1. 2. 3. 4. Pembatasan pembakaran diruang terbuka, mis pada praktek pertanian, melalui peraturan perundangan. Erosi debu oleh angin, yaitu dg penyiraman, stabilisasi tanah, perlindungan dari angin. Pengelolaan pencemaran udara dari permukaan jalan misalnya dg perbaikan permukaan, penyiraman atau peraturan perundangan. Fugitive-dust-control utk sampah terbuka, penumpukan material, landfill, pengelolaan lahan, IPL cair dan lain 2 dilakukan dengan pembuatan konstruksi pencegah emisi, pengaturan tata ruang dan pengaturan teknik operasinya. CATALYTIC CONVERTER (colloquially, "cat" or "catcon") is an exhaust emission control device which converts toxic chemicals in the exhaust of an internal combustion engine into less toxic substances. Inside a catalytic converter, a catalyst stimulates a chemical reaction in which noxious byproducts of combustion are converted to less toxic substances by way of catalysed chemical reactions. The specific reactions vary with the type of catalyst installed. Most present-day vehicles that run on gasoline are fitted with a "three way" converter, so named because it converts the three main pollutants in automobile exhaust: an oxidising reaction converts carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC), and a reduction reaction converts oxides of nitrogen (NOx) to produce carbon dioxide (CO 2), nitrogen (N 2), and water (H 2 O). Catalytic converters are still most commonly used on automobile exhaust systems, but are also used on generator sets, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks, buses, locomotives, motorcycles, airplanes and other engine fitted devices. They are also used on some wood stoves to control emissions. This is usually in response to government regulation, either through direct environmental regulation or through health and safety regulations. Sumber: diunduh dari : http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Catalytic_converter
MITIGASI 5. 6. 7. Emisi dari penggunaan pestisida misalnya dg penggunaan spray-nozzle bertekanan rendah dan pengaturan waktu penyemprotan. Emisi dari kendaraan bermotor dikurangi dg substitusi bahan bakar dg yg lebih ramah lingkungan, efisiensi sistem pembakaran, pengembangan mesin, pengaturan tata ruang dan peraturan perundangan utk sistem transportasi yg lebih efisien. Utk sumber titik, misalnya dari industri, dilakukan dg cerobong asap, merubah proses, substitusi material dan IPL gas. Pengendalian dg IPL gas misalnya menggunakan cyclones, scrubbers, fabric filters dan electrostatic precipitators (utk partikel) dan adsorpsi, absorpsi, pembakaran dan kondensasi (utk gas). Two-way Converter A two-way (or "oxidation") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks: Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2 CO + O 2 → 2 CO 2 Oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially burnt fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: Cx. H 2 x+2 + [(3 x+1)/2] O 2 → x. CO 2 + (x+1) H 2 O (a combustion reaction) This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in American- and Canadian-market automobiles until 1981. Because of their inability to control oxides of nitrogen, they were superseded by three-way converters. Sumber: diunduh dari : http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Catalytic_converter
KONVERTER TIGA-JALUR Since 1981, "three-way" (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent vehicle emission regulations that in effect require three-way converters on gasoline-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing, however in some instances they may be housed separately. A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks: Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2 NO x → x. O 2 + N 2 Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2 CO + O 2 → 2 CO 2 Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water: Cx. H 2 x+2 + [(3 x+1)/2]O 2 → x. CO 2 + (x+1)H 2 O. These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point. This point is between 14. 6 and 14. 8 parts air to 1 part fuel, by weight, for gasoline. The ratio for Autogas (or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)), natural gas and ethanol fuels is each slightly different, requiring modified fuel system settings when using those fuels. In general, engines fitted with 3 -way catalytic converters are equipped with a computerized closed-loop feedback fuel injection system using one or more oxygen sensors, though early in the deployment of three-way converters, carburetors equipped for feedback mixture control were used. Three-way catalysts are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow band of air-fuel ratios near stoichiometry, such that the exhaust gas oscillates between rich (excess fuel) and lean (excess oxygen) conditions. However, conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of that band of air-fuel ratios. Under lean engine operation, there is excess oxygen and the reduction of NO x is not favored. Under rich conditions, the excess fuel consumes all of the available oxygen prior to the catalyst, thus only stored oxygen is available for the oxidation function. Closed-loop control systems are necessary because of the conflicting requirements for effective NOx reduction and HC oxidation. The control system must prevent the NO x reduction catalyst from becoming fully oxidized, yet replenish the oxygen storage material to maintain its function as an oxidation catalyst. Sumber: diunduh dari : http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Catalytic_converter
DAMPAK KERUSAKAN LINGKUNGAN AKIBAT KEGIATAN PENAMBANGAN PASIR DI DAERAH KAWASAN GUNUNG MERAPI Endang Supriyatna Fakultas Teknik Industri Mercubuana. Pasir merupakan salah satu produk kegiatan Gunung Merapi yang merupakan andalan pemerintah Kabupaten Magelang dalam meningkatkan Pendapatan Asli Daerah dan juga menyerap lapangan kerja. Selain mendatangkan manfaat penambangan pasir Merapi juga menimbulkan dampak lingkungan bagi daerah di lokasi penambangan dan juga bagi daerah di bawahnya. Tingkat kerusakan lingkungan yang terjadi di lokasi penambangan pasir mengkaji dampak kerusakan lingkungan yang terjadi akibat penambangan pasir mengajukan usulan pengelolaan lokasi penambangan pasir. Tingkat erosi di lokasi penambangan pasir adalah moderat dan ringan dan menimbulkan dampak fisik lingkungan seperti tanah longsor, berkurangnya debit air permukaan (mataair), tingginya lalu lintas kendaraan membuat mudah rusaknya jalan, polusi udara, dan dampak sosial ekonomi. Dampak sosial ekonomi penyerapan tenaga kerja karena sebagian masyarakat bekerja menjadi tenaga kerja di penambangan pasir, adanya pemasukan bagi pemilik tanah yang dijual atau disewakan untuk diambil pasirnya dengan harga tinggi, banyaknya pendatang yang ikut menambang sehingga dapat menimbulkan konflik, adanya ketakutan sebagian masyarakat karena penambangan pasir yang berpotensi longsor. Berdasarkan analisis SWOT maka langkah-langkah yang perlu dilakukan untuk menghindari dampak lingkungan adalah dengan memanfaatkan teknologi konservasi lahan dan penegakan hukum melalui peraturan perundangan yang jelas, transparan dan akuntabel serta pelibatan peran aktif masyarakat. Sumber: http: //industri 18 endangsupriyatna. blog. mercubuana. ac. id/2011/11/30/dampak-kerusakan-lingkungan-akibat-kegiatan-penambanganpasir-di-daerah-kawasan-gunung-merapi/ …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN DALAM PEMBANGUNAN BERKELANJUTAN Pembangunan berwawasan lingkungan adalah usaha meningkatkan kualitas manusia secara bertahap dengan memerhatikan faktor lingkungan. Pembangunan berwawasan lingkungan dikenal dengan nama Pembangunan Berkelanjutan. Konsep pembangunan berkelanjutan merupakan kesepakatan hasil KTT Bumi di Rio de Jeniro tahun 1992. Di dalamnya terkandung 2 gagasan penting, yaitu: 1. Gagasan kebutuhan, khususnya kebutuhan pokok manusia untuk menopang hidup. 2. Gagasan keterbatasan, yaitu keterbatasan kemampuan lingkungan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan baik masa sekarang maupun masa yang akan datang. Adapun ciri-ciri Pembangunan Berwawasan Lingkungan adalah sebagai berikut: 1. Menjamin pemerataan dan keadilan. 2. Menghargai keanekaragaman hayati. 3. Menggunakan pendekatan integratif. 4. Menggunakan pandangan jangka panjang. Sumber: http: //afand. abatasa. com/post/detail/2405/lingkungan-hidup-kerusakan-lingkungan-pengertian-kerusakan-linkungan-dan-pelestarian. htm…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
UPAYA PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP Pada masa reformasi sekarang ini, pembangunan nasional dilaksanakan tidak lagi berdasarkan GBHN dan Propenas, tetapi berdasarkan UU No. 25 Tahun 2000, tentang Sistem Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (SPPN). Sistem Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional mempunyai tujuan di antaranya: 1. Menjamin tercapainya penggunaan sumber daya secara efisien, efektif, berkeadilan, dan berkelanjutan. 2. Mengoptimalkan partisipasi masyarakat. 3. Menjamin keterkaitan dan konsistensi antara perencanaan, penganggaran, pelaksanaan, dan pengawasan. 1. Upaya yang Dilakukan Pemerintah 2. Pemerintah sebagai penanggung jawab terhadap kesejahteraan rakyatnya memiliki tanggung jawab besar dalam upaya memikirkan dan mewujudkan terbentuknya pelestarian lingkungan hidup. Hal-hal yang dilakukan pemerintah antara lain: a. Mengeluarkan UU Pokok Agraria No. 5 Tahun 1960 yang mengatur tentang Tata Guna Tanah. b. Menerbitkan UU No. 4 Tahun 1982, tentang Ketentuan-ketentuan Pokok Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup. c. Memberlakukan Peraturan Pemerintah RI No. 24 Tahun 1986, tentang AMDAL (Analisa Mengenai Dampak Lingkungan). d. Pada tahun 1991, pemerintah membentuk Badan Pengendalian Lingkungan, dengan tujuan pokoknya: 1) Menanggulangi kasus pencemaran. 2) Mengawasi bahan berbahaya dan beracun (B 3). 3) Melakukan penilaian analisis mengenai dampak lingkungan (AMDAL). e. Pemerintah mencanangkan gerakan menanam sejuta pohon.
UPAYA PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP Beberapa upaya yang dapat dilakuklan masyarakat berkaitan dengan pelestarian lingkungan hidup antara lain: a. Pelestarian tanah (tanah datar, lahan miring/perbukitan) Terjadinya bencana tanah longsor dan banjir menunjukkan peristiwa yang berkaitan dengan masalah tanah. Banjir telah menyebabkan pengikisan lapisan tanah oleh aliran air yang disebut erosi yang berdampak pada hilangnya kesuburan tanah serta terkikisnya lapisan tanah dari permukaan bumi. Tanah longsor disebabkan karena tak ada lagi unsur yang menahan lapisan tanah pada tempatnya sehingga menimbulkan kerusakan. Jika hal tersebut dibiarkan terus berlangsung, maka bukan mustahil jika lingkungan berubah menjadi padang tandus. Upaya pelestarian tanah dapat dilakukan dengan cara menggalakkan kegiatan menanam pohon atau penghijauan kembali (reboisasi) terhadap tanah yang semula gundul. Untuk daerah perbukitan atau pegunungan yang posisi tanahnya miring perlu dibangun terasering atau sengkedan, sehingga mampu menghambat laju aliran air hujan. Sumber: http: //rovicky. wordpress. com/2007/03/03/kenali-tanda-awal-longsoran-awas/ …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
UPAYA PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP Tips Menghadapi Longsor dan Ciri Daerah Rawan Longsor (Tim Bakornas – 2005) Ciri Daerah Rawan Longsor 1. Daerah berbukit dengan kelerengan lebih dari 20 derajat 2. Lapisan tanah tebal di atas lereng 3. Sistem tata air dan tata guna lahan yang kurang baik 4. Lereng terbuka atau gundul 5. Terdapat retakan tapal kuda pada bagian atas tebing 6. Banyaknya mata air/rembesan air pada tebing disertai longsoran-longsoran kecil 7. Adanya aliran sungai di dasar lereng 8. Pembebanan yang berlebihan pada lereng seperti adanya bangunan rumah atau saranan lainnya. 9. Pemotongan tebing untuk pembangunan rumah atau jalan Upaya mengurangi tanah longsor 1. Menutup retakan pada atas tebing dengan material lempung. 2. Menanami lereng dengan tanaman serta memperbaiki tata air dan guna lahan. 3. Waspada terhadap mata air/rembesan air pada lereng. 4. Waspada padsa saat curah hujan yang tinggi pada waktu yang lama Hal-hal yang dilakukan pada saat dan setelah longsor 1. Karena longsor terjadi pada saat yang mendadak, evakuasi penduduk segera setelah diketahui tanda-tanda tebing akan longsor. 2. Segera hubungi pihak terkait dan lakukan pemindahan korban dengan hati-hati. 3. Segera lakukan pemindahan penduduk ke tempat yang aman. Sumber: http: //rovicky. wordpress. com/2007/03/03/kenali-tanda-awal-longsoran-awas/ …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
UPAYA PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP b. Pelestarian udara Udara merupakan unsur vital bagi kehidupan, karena setiap organisme bernapas memerlukan udara. Kalian mengetahui bahwa dalam udara terkandung beranekaragam gas, salah satunya oksigen. Udara yang kotor karena debu atau pun asap sisa pembakaran menyebabkan kadar oksigen berkurang. Keadaan ini sangat membahayakan bagi kelangsungan hidup setiap organisme. Maka perlu diupayakan kiat-kiat untuk menjaga kesegaran udara lingkungan agar tetap bersih, segar, dan sehat. Upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk menjaga agar udara tetap bersih dan sehat antara lain: 1. Menggalakkan penanaman pohon atau pun tanaman hias di sekitar kita. Tanaman dapat menyerap gas-gas yang membahayakan bagi manusia. Tanaman mampu memproduksi oksigen melalui proses fotosintesis. Rusaknya hutan menyebabkan jutaan tanaman lenyap sehingga produksi oksigen bagi atmosfer jauh berkurang, di samping itu tumbuhan juga mengeluarkan uap air, sehingga kelembapan udara akan tetap terjaga. 2. Mengupayakan pengurangan emisi atau pembuangan gas sisa pembakaran, baik pembakaran hutan maupun pembakaran mesin Asap yang keluar dari knalpot kendaraan dan cerobong asap merupakan penyumbang terbesar kotornya udara di perkotaan dan kawasan industri. Salah satu upaya pengurangan emisi gas berbahaya ke udara adalah dengan menggunakan bahan industri yang aman bagi lingkungan, serta pemasangan filter pada cerobong asap pabrik. 3. Mengurangi atau bahkan menghindari pemakaian gas kimia yang dapat merusak lapisan ozon di atmosfer Gas freon yang digunakan untuk pendingin pada AC maupun kulkas serta dipergunakan di berbagai produk kosmetika, adalah gas yang dapat bersenyawa dengan gas ozon, sehingga mengakibatkan lapisan ozon menyusut. Lapisan ozon adalah lapisan di atmosfer yang berperan sebagai filter bagi bumi, karena mampu memantulkan kembali sinar ultraviolet ke luar angkasa yang dipancarkan oleh matahari. Sinar ultraviolet yang berlebihan akan merusakkan jaringan kulit dan menyebabkan meningkatnya suhu udara. Pemanasan global
UPAYA PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP c. Pelestarian hutan Eksploitasi hutan yang terus menerus berlangsung sejak dahulu hingga kini tanpa diimbangi dengan penanaman kembali, menyebabkan kawasan hutan menjadi rusak. Pembalakan liar yang dilakukan manusia merupakan salah satu penyebab utama terjadinya kerusakan hutan. Padahal hutan merupakan penopang kelestarian kehidupan di bumi, sebab hutan bukan hanya menyediakan bahan pangan maupun bahan produksi, melainkan juga penghasil oksigen, penahan lapisan tanah, dan menyimpan cadangan air. Upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk melestarikan hutan: 1. Reboisasi atau penanaman kembali hutan yang gundul. 2. Melarang pembabatan hutan secara sewenang-wenang. 3. Menerapkan sistem tebang pilih dalam menebang pohon. 4. Menerapkan sistem tebang–tanam dalam kegiatan penebangan hutan. 5. Menerapkan sanksi yang berat bagi mereka yang melanggar ketentuan mengenai pengelolaan hutan. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
UPAYA PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP DALAM PEMBANGUNAN BERKELANJUTAN Schematic diagram of the six components of the tropical d. Pelestarian laut dan pantai Seperti halnya hutan, laut juga sebagai sumber daya alam potensial. Kerusakan biota laut dan pantai banyak disebabkan karena ulah manusia. Pengambilan pasir pantai, karang di laut, pengrusakan hutan bakau, merupakan kegatankegiatan manusia yang mengancam kelestarian laut dan pantai. Terjadinya abrasi yang mengancam kelestarian pantai disebabkan telah hilangnya hutan bakau di sekitar pantai yang merupakan pelindung alami terhadap gempuran ombak. coastal shelf ecosystem (modified from Crewz and Lewis (1991)) Upaya untuk melestarikan laut dan pantai dapat dilakukan dengan cara: 1. Melakukan reklamasi pantai dengan menanam kembali tanaman bakau di areal sekitar pantai. 2. Melarang pengambilan batu karang yang ada di sekitar pantai maupun di dasar laut, karena karang merupakan habitat ikan dan tanaman laut. 3. Melarang pemakaian bahan peledak dan bahan kimia lainnya dalam mencari ikan. 4. Melarang pemakaian pukat harimau untuk mencari ikan. Sumber: http: //www. reefball. com/reefballcoalition/mangrovestuff/mangroverestoration. pdf …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
UPAYA PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP e. Pelestarian flora dan fauna Kehidupan di bumi merupakan sistem ketergantungan antara manusia, hewan, tumbuhan, dan alam sekitarnya. Terputusnya salah satu mata rantai dari sistem tersebut akan mengakibatkan gangguan dalam kehidupan. Oleh karena itu, kelestarian flora dan fauna merupakan hal yang mutlak diperhatikan demi kelangsungan hidup manusia. Upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk menjaga kelestarian flora dan fauna di antaranya adalah: 1. Mendirikan cagar alam dan suaka margasatwa. 2. Melarang kegiatan perburuan liar. 3. Menggalakkan kegiatan penghijauan. Sumber: http: //www. reefball. com/reefballcoalition/mangrovestuff/mangroverestoration. pdf …. . Diunduh 26/4/2012
UPAYA PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP The five critical steps are necessary to achieve successful mangrove restoration: 1. Understand the autecology (individual species ecology) of the mangrove species at the site; in particular the patterns of reproduction, propagule distribution, and successful seedling establishment. 2. Understand the normal hydrologic patterns that control the distribution and successful establishment and growth of targeted mangrove species. 3. Assess modifications of the original mangrove environment that currently prevent natural secondary succession. 4. Design the restoration program to restore appropriate hydrology and, if possible, utilize natural volunteer mangrove propagule recruitment for plant establishment. 5. Only utilize actual planting of propagules, collected seedlings, or cultivated seedlings after determining (through steps a-d) that natural recruitment will not provide the quantity of successfully established seedlings, rate of stabilization, or rate of growth of saplings established as objectives for the restoration project (Lewis and Marshall 1997). Sumber: http: //www. reefball. com/reefballcoalition/mangrovestuff/mangroverestoration. pdf …. . Diunduh 26/4/2012
DAMPAK KERUSAKAN HUTAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN HIDUP (Oleh : MOHAMMAD AQSA, S. Hut. ) Hutan menurut undang-undang nomor 41 tahun 1999 adalah suatu kawasan ekosistem berupa hamparan lahan berisi sumber daya alam hayati yang didominasi pepohonan dalam persekutuan alam lingkungan, yang satu dengan lainnya tidak dapat dipisahkan. Hutan sebagai sekumpulan ekosistem dimana saling berhubungan erat antara hutan dan lingkungan baik itu berupa pepohonan, benda-benda hayati dan non hayati, lingkungan pendukung (jasa) dimana semua yang ada diatas selalu saling berhubungan dan saling mempengaruhi. Hutan secara keseluruhan merupakan kumpulan hidup alam hayati beserta alam lingkungannya. Keanekaragaman hayati dalam suatu kawasan hutan alam terdapat beragam jenis pepohonan, umur yang beragam dan tingkat kerapatan yang tidak teratur dan pertumbuhan (riap yang berbeda) Sumber: http: //mimpi 22. wordpress. com/2010/04/22/dampak-kerusakan-hutan-terhadap-lingkungan-hidup/…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAMPAK KERUSAKAN HUTAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN HIDUP (Oleh : MOHAMMAD AQSA, S. Hut. ) Faktor-faktor penyebab kerusakan hutan : A. Segi biofisik 1. Illegal logging (Penebangan liar) Terjadinya penebangan liar dalam suatu kawasan hutan semakin memicu terjadinya kereusakan hutan dan menurunnya/berubah fungsi hutan, walaupun penebangan liar telah dilarang selama bertahun-tahun oleh pemerintah setempat dan pihak militer, namun sekarang ini terdapat bahaya besar yang mengancam dengan merajalelanya pandangan “bebas bagi siapa saja” termasuk penduduk untuk menebang kayu sebanyak-banyaknya. 2. Kebakaran hutan yang terjadi di Indonesia ini, karena keteledoran dari masyarakat itu sendiri yang tidak memperhatikan/tidak memperdulikan seperti membuang puntung rokok ke hutan dan lain-lain. Sumber: http: //mimpi 22. wordpress. com/2010/04/22/dampak-kerusakan-hutan-terhadap-lingkungan-hidup/…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAMPAK KERUSAKAN HUTAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN HIDUP (Oleh : MOHAMMAD AQSA, S. Hut. ) Faktor-faktor penyebab kerusakan hutan : 3. Perambahan hutan Petani yang menanam tanaman tahunan perkebunan dapat mengakibatkan ancaman utama berupa kerusakan hutan yang diciptakan oleh petani kaya, imigran dan pengusaha dari kota yang mengubah hutan menjadi lahan penanaman tanaman keras yang menguntungkan. 4. Program pembangunan yang mendayagunakan lahan hutan seperti sawah, transmigrasi (pemukiman), perkebunan, dan lain-lain sehingga hutan menjadi berubah fungsi dan akan berakibat buruk bagi lingkungan. 5. Serangan hama dan penyakit Timbulnya ledakan hama secara besar-besaran akibat dari penggunaan pestisida yang berlebihan sehingga membuat hama dan penyakit ada yang menjadi kebal terhadap pestisida dan menyerang semua tumbuhan atau pepohonan yang ada dalam suatu kawasan hutan. Sumber: http: //mimpi 22. wordpress. com/2010/04/22/dampak-kerusakan-hutan-terhadap-lingkungan-hidup/…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAMPAK KERUSAKAN HUTAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN HIDUP (Oleh : MOHAMMAD AQSA, S. Hut. ) B. Segi Manajemen 1. Kebijakan pemerintah yang tidak memihak kepada lingkungan misalnya, dalam penyusunan tata ruang, yang seharusnya suatu lahan itu adalah kawasan hutan, menjadi kawasan pertanian, pemukimam dan lain-lain. 2. Perencanaan pembangunan yang kurang memperhatikan kelestarian hutan seperti pembangunan rumah dari batu merah, dimana pabrik batu merah berdiri di sekitar kawasan hutan, dimana pabrik itu menggunakan bahan bakar kayu yang diambil dari hutan sehingga masyarakat beramai-ramai menggunduli hutan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pasokan kayu bakar dari pabrik batu merah. 3. Persepsi dan pemahaman masyarakat yang tidak tepat terhadap sumber daya hutan, dimana masyarakat lebih dominan menanam tanaman pertanian dari pada tanaman kehutanan karena waktu yang dibutuh kan oleh tanaman pertanian lebih cepat menghasilkan daripada tanaman kehutanan. 4. Ekosistem adalah suatu sistem dimana terdapat hubungan timbal balik antara organisme dan lingkungannya (biotik dan abiotik) serta terdapat pula pertukaran/arus energi dan materi diantara organisme dengan lingkungan tersebut. Ekosistem terbagi dua yaitu : ekosistem alami yaitu hutan alam dan sungai, sedangkan ekosistem buatan antara lain waduk, lahan pertanian, pemukiman dan lain-lain. Ekosistem alami mempunyai kemantapan yang tinggi dibanding ekosistem buatan. Ciri-ciri dari ekosistem yaitu terjadinya hubungan ekologi dan sistem yang ada atau hubungan timbal balik antara manusia dengan lingkungan dan membentuk suatu kesatuan. Sumber: http: //mimpi 22. wordpress. com/2010/04/22/dampak-kerusakan-hutan-terhadap-lingkungan-hidup/…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAMPAK KERUSAKAN HUTAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN HIDUP (Oleh : MOHAMMAD AQSA, S. Hut. ) Peran hutan dalam suatu sistem lingkungan 1. Fungsi lindung Dalam suatu kawasan hutan mempunyai fungsi pokok sebagai perlindungan sistem penyangga kehidupan untuk mengatur tata air, mencegah banjir, mengembalikan erosi, mencegah intrusi air laut dan memelihara kesuburan tanah. 2. Fungsi produksi Dalam suatu kawasan hutan mempunyai fungsi pokok memproduksi hasil hutan untuk kepentingan peningkatan devisa dan kesejahteraan masyarakat. 3. Fungsi konservasi (perlindungan) Dapat dikatakan sebagai fungsi pemeliharaan dan pengawetan keanekaragaman hayati dan ekosistem yaitu hutan menjadi suatu kawasan konservasi yaitu kawasan dengan lingkungan yang baik, udara yang segar dan pemandangan yang indah seperti kawasan pelestarian alam (KPA) yang terdiri dari taman nasional, taman hutan raya dan taman wisata. Kawasan suaka alam (KSA) terdiri dari cagar alam (CA), suaka marga satwa (SM), dan cagar biosfer (CB). Pengaruh global di hutan tehadap sistem kehidupan: 1. 2. 3. Pengaruh terhadap iklim Hutam merupakan produsen terbesar dari oksigen dan Indonesia memiliki banyak hutan tropika basah sebagai penghasil terbesar oksigen. Pengaruh terhadap curah hujan Pengaruh hutan terhadap curah hujan sangat besar. Di negara-negara kepulauan, pengaruh curah hujan mencapai 60% dan di lautan 40%. Salah satu cara memperbaiki iklim kita adalah dengan memperbaiki hutan kita agar perubahan-perubahan iklim tidak terlalu variatif seperti mencairnya es di kutub, pemanasan global. Hal-hal pokok yang perlu diperhatikan: Komponen-komponen pendukung yang mendukung fungsi tersebut seperti fungsi dari suaka alam misalnya eboni. Tanaman-tanaman lainnya yang merupakan asosiasi dari eboni tadi Fauna / satwa yang ada di sekitar itu
DAMPAK KERUSAKAN HUTAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN HIDUP (Oleh : MOHAMMAD AQSA, S. Hut. ) Unsur-unsur terbesar dari kerusakan lingkungan yaitu : 1. 2. 3. Hutan Perkiraan tidak resmi dari bank dunia menyatakan bahwa setiap tahunnya Indonesia kehilangan 1, 5 juta Ha hutan selama 12 tahun terakhir dan apabila ini dibiarkan maka akan terjadi ketidakstabilan/ketidakseimbangan lingkungan yang akan berdampak buruk bagi kehidupan manusia. Pencemaran sekarang menjadi marak di Indonesia, dimana limbah-limbah pabrik dibuang begitu saja tanpa memperhatikan dampak yang terjadi pada lingkungan. Kemiskinan Hal ini akan memicu kerusakan lingkungan semakin besar karena setiap orang akan berbuat apa saja demi sesuap nasi walaupun yang dilakukan ini adalah merusak lingkungan. Forest degradation means any negative changes in a forest that damage its productivity; any time a forest is made worse by: 1. overexploitation (any time it is used too much by farmers or tourists), 2. logging (deforestation), 3. logging camps and 4. logging roads built through the forest. 5. air pollution, 6. fires, 7. insects and 8. vegetation diseases. 9. firewood scavenging 10. animal foraging 11. pasturing 12. industrialisation (factories) 13. urbanisation (buildings) Sumber: http: //wiki. answers. com/Q/What_is_forest_degradation …. . Diunduh 26/4/2012 Sometimes the term Forest Degradation does NOT include cutting down trees, which is then referred to as
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR 1. Apa itu pencemaran air? Pencemaran air adalah suatu perubahan keadaan di suatu tempat penampungan air seperti danau, sungai, lautan dan air tanah akibat aktivitas manusia. Danau, sungai, lautan dan air tanah adalah bagian penting dalam siklus kehidupan manusia dan merupakan salah satu bagian dari siklus hidrologi. Selain mengalirkan air juga mengalirkan sedimen dan polutan. Berbagai macam fungsinya sangat membantu kehidupan manusia. Kemanfaatan terbesar danau, sungi, lautan dan air tanah adalah untuk irigasi pertanian, bahan baku air minum, sebagai saluran pembuangan air hujan dan air limbah, bahkan sebenarnya berpotensi sebagai objek wisata. Dalam PP No 20/1990 tentang Pengendalian Pencemaran Air, pencemaran air di definisikan sebagai : “Pencemaran air adalah masuknya atau dimasukkannya makhluk hidup, zat, energi, dan atau komponen lain ke dalam air oleh kegiatan manusia sehingga kualitas dari air tersebut turun hingga batas tertentu yang menyebabkan air tidak berguna lagi sesuai dengan peruntukannya. (Pasal 1, angka 2). Pencemaran air terjadi pada sumber-sumber air seperti danau, sungai, laut dan air tanah yang disebabkan oleh aktivitas manusia. Air dikatakan tercemar jika tidak dapat digunakan sesuai dengan fungsinya. Walaupun fenomena alam, seperti gunung meletus, pertumbuhan gang, gulma yang sangat cepat, badai dan gempa bumi merupakan penyebab utama perubahan kualitas air, namun fenomena tersebut tidak dapat disalahkan sebagai penyebab pencemaran air. Pencemaran ini dapat disebabkan oleh limbah industri, perumahan, pertanian, rumah tangga, industri, dan penangkapan ikan dengan menggunakan racun. Polutan industri antara lain polutan organik (limbah cair), polutan anorganik (padatan, logam berat), sisa bahan bakar, tumpaham minyak tanah dan oli merupakan sumber utama pencemaran air, terutama air tanah. Disamping itu penggundulan hutan, baik untuk pembukaan lahan pertanian, perumahan dan konstruksi bangunan lainnya mengakibatkan pencemaran air tanah. Sumber: http: //uwityangyoyo. wordpress. com/2012/02/01/menurunnya-kualitas-air-akibat-kerusakan-lingkungan/ …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR 1. Apa itu pencemaran air? Limbah rumah tangga seperti sampah organik (sisa-sisa makanan), sampah anorganik (plastik, gelas, kaleng) serta bahan kimia (detergen, batu batere) juga berperan besar dalam pencemaran air, baik air di permukaan maupun air tanah. Polutan dalam air mencakup unsur-unsur kimia, pathogen/bakteri dan perubahan sifat Fisika dan kimia dari air. Banyak unsur-unsur kimia merupakan racun yang mencemari air. Patogen/bakteri mengakibatkan pencemaran air sehingga menimbulkan penyakit pada manusia dan binatang. Adapuan sifat fisika dan kimia air meliputi derajat keasaman, konduktivitas listrik, suhu dan pertilisasi permukaan air. Di negara berkembang, seperti Indonesia, pencemaran air (air permukaan dan air tanah) merupakan penyebab utama gangguan kesehatan manusia/penyakit. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa di seluruh dunia, lebih dari 14. 000 orang meninggal dunia setiap hari akibat penyakit yang ditimbulkan oleh pencemaran air. Secara umum, sumber-sumber pencemaran air adalah sebagai berikut : 1. Limbah industri (bahan kimia baik cair ataupun padatan, sisa-sisa bahan bakar, tumpahan minyak dan oli, kebocoran pipa-pipa minyak tanah yang ditimbun dalam tanah) 2. Pengungangan lahan hijau/hutan akibat perumahan, bangunan 3. Limbah pertanian (pembakaran lahan, pestisida) 4. Limbah pengolahan kayu 5. Penggunakan bom oleh nelayan dalam mencari ikan di laut 6. Rumah tangga (limbah cair, seperti sisa mandi, MCK, sampah padatan seperti plastik, gelas, kaleng, batu batere, sampah cair seperti detergen dan sampah organik, seperti sisa-sisa makanan dan sayuran). Sumber: http: //uwityangyoyo. wordpress. com/2012/02/01/menurunnya-kualitas-air-akibat-kerusakan-lingkungan/ …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR Penyebab pencemaran air Berdasarkan defisini dari pencemaran air, dapat diketahui bahwa penyebab pencemaran air dapat berupa masuknya makhluk hidup, zat, energi ataupun komponen lain sehingga kualias air menurun dan air pun tercemar. Banyak penyebab pencemaran air, tetapi secara umum dapat dikategorikan menjadi 2 (dua) yaitu sumber kontaminan langsung dan tidak langsung. Sumber langsung meliputi efluen yang keluar industri, TPA sampah, rumah tangga dan sebagainya. Sumber tak langsung adalah kontaminan yang memasuki badan air dari tanah, air tanah atau atmosfir berupa hujan. Pada dasarnya sumber pencemaran air berasal dari industri, rumah tangga (pemukiman) dan pertanian. Tanah dan air mengandung sisa dari aktifitas pertanian seperti pupuk dan pestisida. Kontaminan dari atmosfir juga berasal dari aktifitas manusia yaitu pencemaran udara yang menghasilkan hujan asam. Selain itu pencemaran air dapat disebabkan oleh berbagai hal dan memiliki karakteristik yang berbeda-beda, seperti : Meningkatnya kandungan nutrien dapat mengarah pada eutrofikasi. Sampah organik seperti air comberan (sewage) menyebabkan peningkatan kebutuhan oksigen pada air yang menerimanya yang mengarah pada berkurangnya oksigen yang dapat berdampak parah terhadap seluruh ekosistem. Aktivitas industri membuang berbagai macam polutan ke dalam air limbahnya seperti logam berat, toksin organik, minyak, nutrien dan padatan. Air limbah tersebut memiliki efek thermal, terutama yang dikeluarkan oleh pembangkit listrik, yang dapat juga mengurangi oksigen dalam air. Seperti limbah pabrik yg mengalir ke sungai seperti di Sungai Citarum, Sungai Brantas, Bengawan Solo, dan lainnya.
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR Komponen pencemaran air Zaman sekarang ini manusia telah mengenal banyak sekali jenis-jenis zat kimia. Dan hampir 100. 000 zat kimia digunakan secara komersil. Sebagian besar sisa zat kimia tersebut dibuang ke badan air atau air tanah. Seperti pestisida yang digunakan di pertanian, industri atau rumah tangga, deterjen yang digunakan di rumah tangga, atau PCBs yang biasa digunakan dalam alat-alat elektronik. 1. Limbah Padat Bahan buangan padat adalah bahan buangan yang berbentuk padat, baik yang kasar maupun yang halus, misalnya sampah. Buangan tersebut bila dibuang ke air menjadi pencemaran dan akan menimbulkan pelarutan, pengendapan ataupun pembentukan koloidal. 2. Limbah organik dan olahan bahan makanan Bahan buangan organic umumnya berupa limbah yang dapat membusuk atau terdegradasi oleh mikroorganisme, sehingga bila dibuang ke perairan akan menaikkan populasi mikroorganisme. 3. Limbah Anorganik Bahan buangan anorganik sukar didegradasi oleh mikroorganisme, umumnya adalah logam. Apabila masuk ke perairan, maka akan terjadi peningkatan jumlah ion logam dalam air. Bahan buangan anorganik ini biasanya berasal dari limbah industri yang melimbatkan unsur-unsur logam seperti timbal (Pb), Arsen (As), Magnesium (Mg), dll.
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR 4. Limbah cairan berminyak Bahan buangan berminyak yang dibuang ke air lingkungan akan mengapung menutupi permukaan air. Jika bahan buangan minyak mengandung senyawa yang volatile, maka akan terjadi penguapan dan luas permukaan minyak yang menutupi permukaan air akan menyusut. Penyusutan minyak ini tergantung jenis minyak dan waktu. Lapisan minyak pada permukaan air dapat terdegradasi oleh mikroorganisme tertentu, tetapi membutuhkan waktu yang lama. 5. Limbah berupa panas Perubahan kecil pada temperatur air lingkungan bukan saja dapat menghalau ikan atau spesies lainnya, namun juga akan mempercepat proses biologis pada tumbuhan dan hewan bahkan akan menurunkan tingkat oksigen dalam air. Akibatnya akan terjadi kematian pada ikan atau akan terjadi kerusakan ekosistem. 6. Limbah zat kimia Bahan buangan zat kimia banyak ragamnya, tetapi dalam bahan pencemaran air ini akan dikelompokkan menjadi : a. Sabun (deterjen, sampo dan bahan pembersih lainnya), b. Bahan pemberantas hama (insektisida), Zat warna kimia, Zat radioaktif.
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR BAHAYA PENCEMARAN AIR Bibit- bibit penyakit berbagai zat yang bersifat racun dan bahan radioaktif dapat merugikan manusia. Berbagai polutan memerlukan O 2 untuk penguraiannya. Jika O 2 kurang, penguraiannya tidak sempurna dan menyebabkan air berubah warnanya dan berbau busuk. Bahan atau logam yang berbahaya seperti arsenat, uradium, krom, timah, air raksa, benzon, tetraklorida, karbon dan lain- lain dapat merusak organ tubuh manusia atau dapatmenyebabkan kanker. Sejumlah besar limbah dari sungai akan masuk ke laut. Banyak akibat yang ditimbulkan oleh polusi air, diantaranya: Terganggunya kehidupan organisme air karena berkurangnya kandungan oksigen Terjadinya ledakan gang dan tumbuhan air Pendangkalan dasar perairan Tersumbatnya penyaring reservoir, dan menyebabkan perubahan ekologi Dalam jangka panjang mengakibatkan kanker dan kelahiran cacat Akibat penggunaan pestisida yang berlebihan selain membunuh hama dan penyakit, juga membunuh serangga dan makhluk yang berguna terutama predator Kematian biota kuno, seperti plankton, ikan bahkan burung Dapat mengakibatkan mutasi sel kanker dan leukemia Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR BAHAYA PENCEMARAN AIR Beberapa contoh polutannya adalah sebagai berikut : 1. Fosfat berasal dari penggunaan pupuk buatan yang berlebihan deterjen. 2. Nitrat dan Nitrit. Kedua senyawa ini berasal dari penggunaan pupuk buatan yang berlebihan dan proses pembusukan materi organic. 3. Poliklorin Bifenil (PCB). Senyawa ini berasal dari pemanfaatan bahan-bahan pelumas, plastik dan alat listrik. 4. Residu Pestisida Organiklorin. Residu ini berasal dari penyemprotan pestisida pada tanaman untuk membunuh serangga. 5. Minyak dan Hidrokarbon. Minyak dan hidrokarbon dapat berasal dari kebocoran pada roda dan kapal pengangkut minyak. 6. Radio Nuklida. Radio nuklida atau unsur radioaktif berasal dari kebocoran tangki penyimpanan limbah radioaktif. 7. Logam-logam Berat. Logam berat berasal dari industri bahan kimia, penambangan dan bensin. 8. Limbah Pertanian. Limbah pertanian berasal dari kotoran hewan dan tempat penyimpanan makanan ternak. 9. Kotoran manusia berasal dari saluran pembuangan tinja manusia. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR Dampak pencemaran air di lingkungan sekitar Pencemaran air berdampak luas, misalnya dapat meracuni sumber air minum, meracuni makanan hewan, ketidakseimbangan ekosistem sungai danau, pengrusakan hutan akibat hujan asam, dan sebagainya. Di badan air, sungai danau, nitrogen dan fosfat (dari kegiatan pertanian) telah menyebabkan pertumbuhan tanaman air yang di luar kendali (eutrofikasi berlebihan). Ledakan pertumbuhan ini menyebabkan oksigen, yang seharusnya digunakan bersama oleh seluruh hewan/tumbuhan air, menjadi berkurang. Ketika tanaman air tersebut mati, dekomposisi mereka menyedot lebih banyak oksigen. Sebagai akibatnya, ikan akan mati, dan aktivitas bakteri menurun. Dampak pencemaran air pada umumnya dibagi atas 4 kelompok, yaitu : 1. Dampak terhadap kehidupan biota air 2. Dampak terhadap kualitas air tanah 3. Dampak terhadap kesehatan 4. Dampak terhadap estetika lingkungan. 1. Dampak terhadap kehidupan biota air Banyaknya zat pencemaran pada air limbah akan menyebabkan menurunnya kadar oksigen terlarut dalam air tersebut. Sehingga mengakibatkan kehidupan air membutuhkan oksigen terganggu serta mengurangi perkembangannya. Akibat matinya bakteri-bakteri, maka proses penjernihan air secara alamiah yang seharusnya terjadi pada air limbah juga terhambat. Dengan air limbah yang sulit terurai. Panas dari industri juga akan membawa dampak bagi kematian organisme, apabila air limbah tidak didinginkan terlebih dahulu. 2. Dampak terhadap kualitas air tanah Pencemaran air tanah oleh tinja yang biasa diukur dengan faecal coliform telah terjadi dalam skala yang luas, hal ini dibuktikan oleh suatu survey sumur dangkal di Jakarta. Banyak penelitian yang mengindikasikan terjadinya pencemaran tersebut. Sumber: http: //uwityangyoyo. wordpress. com/2012/02/01/menurunnya-kualitas-air-akibat-kerusakan-lingkungan/…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR Dampak pencemaran air di lingkungan sekitar. 3. Dampak terhadap kesehatan Peran air sebagai pembawa penyakit menular bermacam-macam antara lain : 1. Air sebagai media untuk hidup mikroba pathogen, 2. Air sebagai sarang insekta penyebar penyakit, 3. Jumlah air yang tersedia tidak cukup, sehingga manusia bersangkutan tak dapat membersihkan diri, 4. Air sebaga media untuk hidup vector penyakit. 4. Dampak terhadap estetika lingkungan Dengan semakin banyaknya zat organik yang dibuang ke lingkungan perairan, maka perairan tersebut akan semakin tercemar yang biasanya ditandai dengan bau yang menyengat disamping tumpukan yang dapat mengurangi estetika lingkungan. Masalah limbah minyak atau lemak juga dapat mengurangi estetika lingkungan. (diunduh dari: : http: //uwityangyoyo. wordpress. com/2012/02/01/menurunnyakualitas-air-akibat-kerusakan-lingkungan/) Sumber…http: //library. thinkquest. org/04 oct/01590/pollution/culturaleutroph. jpg. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR Sumber…http: //library. thinkquest. org/04 oct/01590/pollution/culturaleutroph. jpg. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
PENANGGULANGAN TERJADINYA PENCEMARAN AIR Pengolahan limbah industri sebelum dibuang ke tempat pembuangan, dialirkan ke sungai atau selokan hendaknya dikumpulkan di suatu tempat yang disediakan, kemudian diolah, agar bila terpaksa harus dibuang ke sungai tidak menyebabkan terjadinya pencemaran air. Bahkan kalau dapat setelah diolah tidak dibuang ke sungai melainkan dapat digunakan lagi untuk keperluan industri sendiri. Sampah padat dari rumah tangga berupa plastik atau serat sintetis yang tidak dapat diuraikan oleh mikroorganisme dipisahkan, kemudian diolah menjadi bahan lain yang berguna, misalnya dapat diolah menjadi keset. Sampah organik yang dapat diuraikan oleh mikroorganisme dikubur dalam lubang tanah, kemudian kalau sudah membusuk dapat digunakan sebagai pupuk. Untuk mencegah agar tidak terjadi pencemaran air, dalam aktivitas kita dalam memenuhi kebutuhan hidup hendaknya tidak menambah terjadinya bahan pencemar antara lain tidak membuang sampah rumah tangga, sampah rumah sakit, sampah/limbah industri secara sembarangan, tidak membuang ke dalam air sungai, danau ataupun ke dalam selokan. Tidak menggunakan pupuk dan pestisida secara berlebihan, karena sisa pupuk dan pestisida akan mencemari air di lingkungan tanah pertanian. Tidak menggunakan deterjen fosfat, karena senyawa fosfat merupakan makanan bagi tanaman air seperti enceng gondok yang dapat menyebabkan terjadinya pencemaran air. Pencemaran air yang terjadi secara alami adalah adanya jumlah logam-logam berat yang masuk dan menumpuk dalam tubuh manusia, logam berat ini dapat meracuni organ tubuh melalui pencernaan karena tubuh memakan tumbuh-tumbuhan yang mengandung logam berat meskipun diperlukan dalam jumlah kecil. Penumpukan logam-logam berat ini terjadi dalam tumbuh-tumbuhan karena terkontaminasi oleh limbah industri. Untuk menanggulangi agar tidak terjadi penumpukan logam-logam berat, maka limbah industri hendaknya dilakukan pengolahan sebelum dibuang ke lingkungan.
PENANGGULANGAN TERJADINYA PENCEMARAN AIR Proses pencegahan terjadinya pencemaran lebih baik daripada proses penanggulangan terhadap pencemaran yang telah terjadi. Usaha-usaha tersebut dapat dilakukan, diantaranya melalui menjaga air tanah agar tetap bersih misalnya: 1. Menempatkan daerah industri atau pabrik jauh dari daerah perumahan atau pemukiman 2. Pembuangan limbah industri diatur sehingga tidak mencermari lingkungan atau ekosistem 3. Pengawasan terhadap penggunaan jenis–jenis pestisida dan zat–zat kimia lain yang dapat menimbulkan pencemaran 4. Memperluas gerakan penghijauan 5. Tindakan tegas terhadap perilaku pencemaran lingkungan 6. Memberikan kesadaran terhadap masyaratkat tentang arti lingkungan hidup sehingga manusia lebih mencintai lingkungan hidupnya 7. Melakukan intensifikasi pertanian Sumber: http: //www. environment. nsw. gov. au/waterqual. htm …. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
PENANGGULANGAN TERJADINYA PENCEMARAN AIR Adapun cara lain untuk mengatasi polusi air atau yang dikenai dengan sebutan banjir pun ada dua macam : 1. Banjir Bandang dapat diatasi secara meluas dengan didukung berbagai disiplin ilmu. 2. Banjir genangan dapat diatasi dengan membersihkan air dari penyumbatan yang mengakibatkan air meluap. Banyak orang mengatakan ” lebih baik mecegah dari pada mengatasi”, hal ini berlaku pula pada banjir genangan di bawah ini ada sejumlah langkah yang dapat kita lakukan untuk mencegah banjir genangan : 1. Dalam merencanakan jalan – jalan lingkungan baik itu program pemerintah maupun swadaya masyarakat sebaiknya memilih material jalan yang menyerap air misalnya, penggunaan bahan dari paving blok (blok – blok adukan beton yang disusun dengan rongga – rongga resapan air disela–selanya. Hal yang tidak kalah pentingnya adalah penataan saluran / drainase lingkungan pembuatannyapun harus bersamaan dengan pembuatan jalan tersebut. 2. Apabila di halaman pekarangan rumah kita masih terdapat ruang – ruang terbuka, buatlah sumur–sumur resapan air hujan sebanyak–banyaknya. Fungsi sumur resapan air ini untuk mempercepat air meresap kedalam tanah. Dengan membuat sumur resapan air hujan tersebut, sebenarnya kita dapat memperoleh manfaat Persediaan air bersih dalam tanah disekitar rumah kita yang cukup baik dan banyak serta tanah bekas galian sumur dapat dipergunakan untuk menimbun lahan–lahan yang rendah atau meninggikan lantai rumah. Apabila air hujan tidak tertampung dalam sebuah selokan – selokan rumah/talang – talang rumah, air dapat dialirkan kesumur – sumur resapan. Janganlah membuang sampah atau mengeluarkan air limbah rumah tangga (air bekas mandi, cucian dan sebagainya) kedalam sumur resapan air hujan karena bisa mencemarkan kandungan air tanah. 1. 2. 3. 4. Kendalam mengatasi pencemaran air : Kurangnya kesadaran diri dari orang – orang untuk membuang sampah pada tempatnya Kurangnya sistem drainase di jalan – jalan Limbah – limbah yang tidak diolah oleh manajemen pabrik dengan baik, sehingga mencemari lingkungan sekitar Kurangnya perhatian dari pemerintah mengenai pencemaran lingkungan. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
PENGEMBANGAN MODEL MULTI-OBJEKTIF PROGRAMMING UNTUK MINIMALISASI DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN PENGEMBANGAN KAPASITAS PEMBANGKIT TENAGA LISTRIK-SISTEM JAWA BALI Udisubakti C. . Sedikit sekali penelitian yang mengungkapkan hubungan pengembangan kapasitas pembangkit dengan persoalan lingkungan hidup terutama yang menyangkut buangan emisi gas pencemar yang menyebabkan pemanasan global dan hujan asam. Studi ini berkaitan dengan pendekatan alternatif untuk menetapkan kombinasi optimal jenis pembangkit untuk rencana pengembangan pembangkit listrik sistem Jawa Bali dalam kerangka analisis keputusan multikriteria. Secara konvensional proses optimalisai "energy mix problem" hanya dikaji sebagai problem keputusan berobjektif tunggal yaitu sebagai "least cost optimisation". Dalam studi ini, model optimasi dikembangkan dengan memperhatikan objektif majemuk yaitu aspek lingkungan dan ekonomis. Bentuk model keputusan berupa pendekatan multiobjektif yang diselesaikan dengan methoda deviasi. Dua fungsi objektif yang dipertimbangkan dalam pengembangan model yaitu optimasi efisiensi finansial yang diukur dari minimalisasi biaya total dan minimalisasi emisi gas polutant akibat pembakaran dan pemanfaatan energi untuk produksi tenaga listrik. Hasil Studi memaparkan keseluruhan solusi yang memberikan kombinasi "optimal" untuk perencanaan kapasitas pembangkit listrik sistem Jawa Bali melalui suatu proses analisis "trade off" antara pencapaian biaya minimumnya dan produksi emisi gas pollutant yang diproduksinya. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Research-3100005066010/1683 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
PENERAPAN MODEL STREET CANYON SEBAGAI METODE PREDIKSI KUALITAS UDARA PADA JALUR TRANSPORTASI DI KAWASAN PERDAGANGAN (STUDI KASUS : JALAN TUNJUNGAN SURABAYA) RAHARDJO, ANGGOWO BASUKI Model street canyon Johnson et al dan Hassan dan Crowther telah diaplikasikan untuk memprediksi kadar karbon monoksida (CO) yang berasal dari emisi gas buang kendaraan bermotor di jalan Tunjungan Surabaya. Estimasi parameter dan validasi model dilakukan dengan menyesuai-kan model terhadap data pengukuran CO di lapangan, kondisi meteorologi (kecepatan dan arah angin dominan) dan emisi sumber garis yang dihitung dari volume lalu-lintas (komposisi dan kecepatan rata-rata kendaraan bermotor). Kedua model tidak dapat diterapkan secara langsung kecuali dengan memasukkan faktor stabilitas atmosfir sehingga memberikan prediksi kada-r CO yang lebih mendekati pengukuran lapangan. Estimasi parameter dan validasi model Johnson et al dengan k=0, 02 menghasilkan prediksi CO yang lebih mendekati pengukuran lapangan pada hari Rabu 03/10/2001(E=66, 50%, r=0, 63, Sb=8, 02 pada leeward side, E=51, 79%; r=0, 75 dan Sb=5, 10 pada windward side). Model Hassan dan Crowther dengan kl=0, 003, k 2=0, 3 dan k 3=110 menghasilkan prediksi CO yang lebih mendekati pengukuran lapangan pada hari Rabu 10/10/2001 (E=33, 68%; r=0, 64 dan Sb=2, 08) Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Master-3100002015243/1421 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
PENGELOLAAN RESIKO PENCEMARAN UDARA DARI KENDARAAN BERMOTOR DI JLN. MH. THAMRIN DKI JAKARTA Rimantho, Dino Pencemaran udara oleh kendaraan bermotor di DKI Jakarta telah melampaui batas standar dalam SK Gub. 1041/2000. Penelitian dilakukan di Jalan MH. Thamrin DKI Jakarta dengan mengambil 3 (tiga) lokasi yang dianggap dapat mewakili populasi. Pengambilan data primer meliputi jumlah dan jenis kendaraan, konsentrasi polutan serta penyebaran kuesioner pada masyarakat. Metode statistic chi square, t-test dam anova digunakan untuk mengolah dan menganalisis data. Hasil penelitian ternyata tidak ada perbedaan jumlah dan jenis kendaraan secara proporsional pada ketiga lokasi. Korelasi yang signifikan terjadi antara variabel polutan (PM 10, CO, SO 2, dan NO), jumlah kendaraan dan jenis penyakit yang dominan yang pernah diderita oleh masyarakat. Variabel polutan yang dominan adalah PM 10 (t-Test 58. 60 dan P-Value 0. 000), variabel jenis penyakit yang dominan yang pernah diderita oleh masyarakat adalah sesak nafas (t-Test 51. 50 dan P-Value 0. 000) dan variabel jenis kendaraan yang dominan adalah minibus (t-Test 59, 37 dan P-Value 0. 000). Tingkat bahaya resiko di jalan MH. Thamrin DKI Jakarta dapat dikategorikan sebagai High Risk (nilai dari analisa semi kuantitatif 496 dan aspek lingkungan signifikan 386. 557) Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Master-3100007030076/1923 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
ANALISA KEMAMPUAN TANAMAN LIDAH MERTUA (SANSEVIERIA SP. ) DAN KEMBANG SEPATU (HIBISCUS ROSASINENSIS) DALAM PENURUNAN KONSENTRASI GAS CO Widhowati, Putri Pencemaran udara merupakan keberadaan zat-zat yang mestinya bukan bagian dari komposisi atmosfer. Salah satu faktor penyebab meningkatnya pencemaran udara adalah semakin meningkatnya populasi penduduk di suatu tempat, terutama di kota-kota besar. Berdasarkan estimasi, jumlah CO dari sumber buatan diperkirakan mendekati 60 juta ton per tahun. Separuh dari jumlah ini berasal dari kendaraan bermotor yang menggunakan bahan bakar bensin dan sepertiganya berasal dari sumber tidak bergerak seperti pembakaran batubara dan minyak dari industri dan pembakaran sampah domestik. Didalam laporan WHO (1992) dinyatakan paling tidak 90% dari CO di udara perkotaan berasal dari emisi kendaraan bermotor. Pada penelitian ini penurunan gas pencemar CO dilakukan dengan memanfaatkan tanaman. Penelitian dilakukan pada variasi jenis tanaman Lidah Mertua (Sansevieria sp. ) dan Kembang Sepatu (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis). Sedangkan variasi tinggi tanaman yang dilakukan adalah 50 cm dan 100 cm. Gas pencemar yang dipaparkan terhadap tanaman uji merupakan pencemar buatan yang diperoleh melalui pemanasan Natrium Format ditambah dengan Asam Sulfat pekat. Pengukuran kandungan gas CO dalam reaktor menggunakan tabung impinger dengan metode spektrofotometri. Tanaman yang dipilih adalah jenis tanaman yang memiliki persentase penyisihan terbesar dalam penurunan konsentrasi gas CO. Hasil penelitian didapatkan tanaman lidah mertua dengan tinggi 100 cm memiliki kemampuan terbesar dalam penurunan konsentrasi gas CO dibandingkan tanaman kembang sepatu yaitu sebesar 84. 18%. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Undergraduate-3100008032238/2137 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
KAJIAN EMISI CO 2 DENGAN MENGGUNAKAN PERSAMAAN LONGRANGE ENERGY ALTERNATIVES PLANNING (LEAP) DARI SEKTOR PERMUKIMAN DI KOTA SURABAYA Pradiptya, Vega Pada penelitian ini diperoleh data primer dan sekunder, dimana data primer diperoleh dari survey. Data sekunder berupa jumlah rumah tangga yang ada di rusun, apartemen, ruko, R 1, R 2 dan R 3 di Surabaya sesuai dengan data dari dinas terkait. Faktor emisi CO 2 yang diperoleh dari IPCC (2006), dan dari penelitian sebelumnya. Perhitungan seluruh energi yang dikonsumsi dan menghasilkan emisi CO 2 Perhitungan emisi CO disebut carbon footprint menggunakan persamaan LEAP. Hasil analisa diperoleh emisi CO yang dihasilkan dari bahan bakar rumah tangga dan penggunaan listrik di tingkat permukiman primer yang dihasilkan dari kegiatan permukiman di Surabaya tahun 2010 adalah 1. 938. 617 ton. CO 2/tahun, sedangkan emisi CO 2 sekunder yang dihasilkan adalah 10. 379. 926, 60 ton. CO 2/tahun, dan untuk total emisi CO 2 adalah 12. 318. 543, 6 ton. CO 2/tahun. Emisi CO 2 primer yang dihasilkan dari kegiatan permukiman di Surabaya berdasarkan jenis perumahan tahun 2011 adalah 272. 287, 7 ton. CO 2/tahun, sedangkan emisi CO 2 sekunder yang dihasilkan adalah 2. 106. 577 ton. CO 2/tahun, dan untuk total emisi CO 2 adalah 2. 378. 865, 16 ton. CO 2/tahun. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Undergraduate-3100011043974/16435 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
PENETAPAN PRIORITAS PROGRAM KEGIATAN PENGENDALIAN KUALITAS LINGKUNGAN UDARA DI KOTA SURABAYA DENGAN PENDEKATAN ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY PROCESS (AHP) Soetjahjo Dalam mewujudkan tujuan Pembangunan Lingkungan Hidup khususnya kualitas lingkungan udara di kota Surabaya. Pemerintah kota Surabaya dalam hal ini Dinas Lingkungan Hidup kota Surabaya mempunyai peranan yang sangat penting disamping peranan swasta dan masyarakat. Dengan menggunakan metode AHP ( Analytical Hierarchy Process ) maka dapat di tentukan prioritas program kegiatan untuk menanggulangi pencemaran udara di kota Surabaya. Penelitian menghasilkan prioritas kriteria pada pencemaran udara yaitu sektor tmsportasi dengan bobot 0, 692 sedangkan hasil perhitungan pada kriteria kegiatan yaitu peningkatan peranan masyarakat dengan bobot 0, 484 serta pada alternative kegiatan sosialisasi pencemaran udara dengan bobot 0, 409. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Master-31000002016737/1220 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
PENERAPAN MODEL CALINE 4 DALAM MEMPREDIKSI POLUTAN CO YANG BERSUMBER DARI KEGIATAN TRANSPORTASI SEBAGAI PERTIMBANGAN PENENTUAN KONSEP PENANGANAN KAWASAN Setiyawardana, R. D. Dimas Surabaya sebagai kota metropolitan, memiliki tingkat pergerakan internal dan eksternal penduduk yang tinggi dengan transportasi umum massal yang kurang memadai, menyebabkan terjadinya penggunaan moda transportasi pribadi yang tinggi dan berpotensi menimbulkan dampak terhadap masyarakat. Koridor Jalan Ahmad Yani dan Wonokromo adalah jalan arteri yang menjadi salah satu jalan terpadat di Surabaya. Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengkaji prediksi pola penyebaran CO yang berasal dari kegiatan transportasi dengan melihat perbedaan tren penyebaran CO pada tahun 2009 dan 2010, dalam dua musim yaitu musim hujan dan musim kemarau. Penyebaran CO disimulasikan dengan menggunakan model Caline 4 sebagai model yang sesuai dalam memprediksi penyebaran CO yang bersifat line source. Pada penelitian ini, model Caline 4 digunakan untuk menetapkan konsentrasi CO pada masing-masing titip reseptor. Nilai dari titik reseptor disimulasikan untuk mendapatkan isopleth yang mampu menggambarkan pola konsentrasi penyebaran CO. Setelah diketahui isopleth penyebaran CO, kemudian dilakukan kajian secara spasial dengan melihat tingkat kepadatan penduduk, pola penggunaan lahan, dan tingkat konsentrasi penyebaran CO. Kajian secara spasial menggunakan batas administatif kecamatan yang terdiri dari Kecamatan Gayungan, Kecamatan Wonocolo, dan Kecamatan Wonokromo sebagai batasan sistem pemerintahan terkecil. Hasil penelitian adalah prediksi penyebaran CO kawasan terdampak pada koridor Jalan Ahmad Yani dan Wonokromo yang memiliki tingkat konsentrasi CO dalam skala tinggi, sedang, dan rendah. Semakin tinggi tingkat konsentrasi CO menunjukkan bahwa kawasan tersebut merupakan kawasan dengan prioritas penanganan utama. Dari penyebaran CO secara spasial, kemudian ditentukan konsep penanganan pada sumber dampak dan kawasan terdampak. Konsep penanganan yang direkomendasikan pada sumber dampak berupa penyediaan Sistem Angkutan Umum Massal dan pada kawasan terdampak berupa konsep yang memperhatikan penataan fisik bangunan dan ketersediaan RTH di wilayah studi. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Master-3100012045264 -/17196 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
KAJIAN SISTEM PENEMPATAN POLISI LALU-LINTAS POLWILTABES SURABAYA DITINJAU DARI KADAR PB DALAM DARAH Setiyawan, Arif Andi Kebijakan penempatan polantas dalam porsi tugas TURJAWALI selama ini tidak memandang segi keamanan internal pada setiap polantas terhadap dampak paparan pencemar udara (khususnya Pb) tetapi lebih dititikberatkan pada segi keamanan masyarakat di jalan. Dampak akumulasi paparan Pb ambien akan menimbulkan bentuk gejala keracunan kronis yang seiring waktu tanpa disadari akan berakibat fatal bagi kelompok masyarakat (Polantas) yang karena tugas dan kewajibannya beresiko besar terpapar pencemar udara Pb setiap hari. Tujuan penelitian adalah untuk menganalisis dan mengevaluasi kualitas udara dan seberapa besar kadar Pb dalam darah polantas akibat paparan pencemar udara Pb. Pengukuran kadar Pb dalam darah pada polantas berdasarkan lokasi bekerja dan masa kerja. Selain itu akan dilakukan tinjauan secara kelembagaan tentang proses penempatan Polantas di lapangan (Pos Tetap dan Pos Pantau). Sehingga dari hasil penelitian ini dapat memberikan masukan terhadap sistem penempatan yang memiliki nilai "aman" bagi polantas terhadap resiko paparan pencemar udara (terutama Pb). Variabel yang diukur dalam penelitian ini adalah kadar timah hitam (Pb) dalam darah Polantas melalui pengukuran laboratorium, hasil jawaban responden atas kuisioner penelitian, aspek teknis karakteristik responden dan aspek pengelolaan kelembagaan dan regulasi. Sedangkan lokasi penelitian adalah Satuan Lalu Lintas Polwiltabes Surabaya khususnya pada Rayon 1 dan Rayon 2. Untuk menjawab permasalahan yang terjadi dalam penelitian ini dipergunakan metode Chi-Square, metode uji t (t student test), uji Anova, metode Causation Factor dan analisis SWOT. Hasil penelitian adalah : 1. Peningkatan pemakaian bahan bakar premium dan jumlah kendaraan bermotor (2001 -2004) dapat dianalogikan juga terjadinya peningkatan kadar Pb ambien, 2. Hasil pemeriksaan laboratorium menunjukkan sebagian besar responden polantas (70%) memiliki kadar Pb darah dalam kategori toleransi, 13, 33% dalam kategori berlebih dan 16, 67 % dalam kategori normal dan kurva regresi menunjukkan Pos Tetap memiliki resiko terpapar cukup tinggi diikuti Pos Pantau dan resiko terendah adalah bagian administrasi, 3. Hasil pengujian causation factor menunjukkan terdapat hubungan antara kadar udara Pb ambien dan kadar Pb dalam darah polantas, 4. Hasil analisis statistik menunjukkan diantara 9 faktor karakteristik Polantas maka ada 5 faktor (lokasi bekerja, lama bertugas di Iapangan, kebiasaan memakai alat pelindung, kebiasaan merokok dan jumlah rokok yang dihisap polantas) berhubungan dengan kadar Pb dalam darah polantas, 5. Analisis kuosioner juga menunjukkan diantara 9 faktor karakteristik didapatkan adanya perbedaan pada 6 faktor karakteristik (tingkat pendidikan, resiko terpapar, lama bertugas di Iapangan, kebiasaan memakai alat pelindung, kebiasaan responden merokok dan jumlah rokok yang dihisap dalam sehari) antara kelompok studi (polantas di Pos Tetap dan Pos Pantau) dengan kelompok kontrol (polantas bagian administrasi), 6. Belum ada regulasi tetap yang mengatur penempatan polantas di Polwiltabes Surabaya. Strategi utama yang diambil adalah pembuatan Manual Program Penempatan Polantas di Iapangan. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Master-3100005022930/725 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
KAJIAN PERILAKU MASYARAKAT TERHADAP UPAYA MITIGASI PENCEMARAN UDARA DI KOTA SURABAYA Irsyada, Widya Sagita Program-program mitigasi pencemaran udara di Kota Surabaya belum diketahui efektivitas pelaksanaannya dalam menurunkan kadar CO 2 karena belum ada penelitian tentang pengaruh perilaku masyarakat terhadap program mitigasi pencemaran udara. Oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukan penelitian ini yang bertujuan untuk menentukan pengaruh perilaku masyarakat terhadap program mitigasi pencemaran udara, menghitung efektifitas program mitigasi terhadap kadar CO 2 secara total serta mengkaji upaya mitigasi yang paling banyak dan efektif dilakukan oleh masyarakat. Penelitian ini dilakukan berdasarkan survey kuesioner pada 100 responden yang terbagi atas 31 kecamatan di Surabaya. Program-program mitigasi yang diteliti adalah: konversi LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas), konversi biosolar, car free day, Pengujian emisi dan Perawatan kendaaraan bermotor secara berkala (sistem P dan P), komposting serta pengurangan pemakaian plastik. Analisa yang dilakukan menggunakan metode analisis korelasi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Penggunaan LPG merupakan perilaku masyarakat yang paling berpengaruh karena paling banyak dilakukan oleh responden yaitu sebesar 92%. Emisi CO 2 berkurang hingga 66, 38% dengan dilakukannya upaya mitigasi pencemaran udara. Sedangkan program mitigasi paling efektif adalah Sistem P dan P. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Undergraduate-3100011042111/14968 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
PEMETAAN KONSENTRASI PARTIKULAT DI KAWASAN RSU DR. SOETOMO SURABAYA Putri, Rr. Windarizti Yuniastried Salah satu sumber dari pencemaran udara adalah partikulat. Partikulat ini berdiameter kurang dari sepuluh mikron (PM 10). Kawasan di Surabaya yang potensial konsentrasi partikulatnya tinggi (PM 10) adalah di sekitar RSU Dr. Soetomo. Hal ini karena RSU Dr. Soetomo memiliki insinerator yang tidak dilengkapi dengan alat pengendali udara dan kawasan RSU Dr. Soetomo merupakan kawasan dengan aktivitas transportasi yang tinggi. Pencemaran partikulat yang melebihi standar baku mutu udara ambien dapat membahayakan kesehatan. Tujuan penelitian ini memetakan konsentrasi partikulat di kawasan RSU Dr. Soetomo dan menganalisis pengaruh dari aktivitas transportasi dan aktivitas insinerator. Penelitian dilakukan dengan melakukan sampling udara ambien serta pengambilan beberapa data primer pada 30 titik sampling di kawasan RSU Dr. Soetomo Surabaya. Alat yang digunakan yaitu HVS (High Volume Sampler) dan Haz Dust. Penelitian ini dilakukan di dalam kawasan RSU Dr. Soetomo dan di luar kawasan RSU Dr. Soetomo dengan pengambilan sampel pada waktu pagi, sore dan malam hari. Parameter yang diukur adalah PM 10 dan hasil analisis akan dipetakan menggunakan Surfer 8. Padatnya aktivitas kendaraan bermotor di kawasan RSU Dr. Soetomo menyebabkan tingginya konsentrasi PM 10 pada beberapa titik sampling sehingga melebihi baku mutu udara. Konsentrasi PM 10 tertinggi pada pagi hari di Jalan Airlangga dimana tingkat konsentrasi PM 10 mencapai angka 211, 363 μg/m 3 dengan total jumlah kendaraan mencapai 4929 kendaraan. Pada sore hari konsentrasi PM 10 tertinggi terdapat di Jalan Karang Menjangan dimana tingkat konsentrasi partikulat mencapai angka 325, 458 μg/m 3 dengan total jumlah kendaraan mencapai 1177 kendaraan. Hasil penelitian di dalam kawasan RSU Dr. Soetomo menunjukkan kondisi udara ambien yang bersih. Hal ini ditunjukkan dengan konsentrasi partikulat yang kecil yaitu di bawah standar baku mutu udara ambien. Selain berdasarkan hasil pengukuran di wilayah studi juga dilakukan perhitungan menurut Hukum Gauss dari cerobong insinerator RSU Dr. Soetomo. Berdasarkan Hukum Gauss di beberapa lokasi sampling ada yang melebihi standar baku mutu udara ambien dan berbeda dengan hasil pengukuran langsung. Hal ini terjadi karena di kawasan RSU Dr. Soetomo terdapat barier yaitu pohon-pohon angsana dan taman yang dapat menyerap PM 10 serta adanya bangunan yang dapat membelokkan arah angin. Kondisi ini mempengaruhi penyebaran partikulat di dalam kawasan RSU Dr. Soetomo Surabaya. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Undergraduate-3100010038650/9453 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
ESTIMASI BEBAN EMISI DAN KONSENTRASI SO 2 MODEL DFLS DARI SEKTOR TRANSPORTASI DENGAN STUDI KASUS SURABAYA SELATAN (JL. GAYUNGSARI BARAT) HIDAYATULLAH, EBEN RAMADYAN Transportasi merupakan salah satu penyumbang terbesar dalam penghasil emisi pencemar. Salah satunya adalah SO 2 ini dihasilkan oleh kendaraan bermotor dari campuran bahan bakar yang dapat menyebabkan penyakit jika terendap dalam tubuh manusia. Penelitian dilakukan di Jl. Gayungsari Barat yaitu di kawasan Surabaya Selatan dengan jumlah kendaraan bermotor cukup tinggi. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk melihat apakah model DFLS ini bisa diaplikasikan dalam penghitungan emisi khususnya SO 2. Tahap pertama yaitu melakukan counting kendaraan bermotor di jalan tersebut. Lalu dihitung beban emisi dengan mengalikan jumlah kendaraan tersebut dengan faktor emisi dari Suhadi. Selanjutnya dapat dihitung konsentrasi pencemar SO 2 dengan memperhatikan arah angin, kecepatan angin, dan juga intensitas matahari. Hal ini diperoleh dari BLH sehingga didapat nilai parameter dari Pasquil. Sehingga dapat dihitung konsentrasi SO 2 dan memproyeksikan 10 tahun ke depan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan konsentrasi SO 2 pada hari Senin, 2 Mei 2011 yaitu sebesar 6, 831 μg/m 3 dan nilai perbandingan BLH sebesar 238, 790 μg/m 3. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Undergraduate-3100011044929/17381 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
STRATEGI PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN KARBON MONOKSIDA (CO) DL TEMPAT PARKIR GEDUNG PLASA XYZ Suprihatin, Hasti Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menentukan konsentrasi zat pencemar CO di udara ambient tempat parkir mobil dalam gedung plasa XYZ, mengetahui dan menganalisa konsentrasi CO terhadap waktu-pengamatan dan ketinggian lantai tempat parkir mobil dalam gedung plasa XYZ dan menentukan strategi pengendalian di tempat parkir mobil dalam gedung plasa XYZ di tinjau dari konsentrasi gas CO. Lokasi penelitian dipilih di tempat parkir dalam gedung plasa XYZ Surabaya, yang memiliki delapan lantai, lima lantai dari dasar merupakan tempat parkir dengan ruangan tertutup sedangkan tiga lantai diatasnya merupakan tempat parkir dengan ruangan semi terbuka. Data primer (studi awal) diperoleh dari penghitungan jumlah mobil selama satu minggu, dan analisis hasil pengambilan contoh. Pengambilan contoh dilakukan yaitu secara grab dan komposit. Analisis pengambilan contoh dengan Non Dispers Infra Red. Jumlah contoh udara adalah 96 buah. Pengambilan contoh dilakukan pada semua titik yang ada di tiap lantai. Parameter kualitas udara yang diukur adalah konsentrasi karbon monoksida pada lantai yang berbeda, perbedaan hari pengamatan dan perbedaan jam pengamatan. Hasil analisis studi awal menunjukkan bahwa hari Rabu, Jum'at, Sabtu dan Minggu adalah hari yang signifikan dalam menunjukkan tingginya konsentrasi CO. Jam yang signifikan dalam menunjukkan tinggi rendahnya konsentrasi CO adalah jam 10. 00 -11. 00, 15. 00 -16. 00 dan 19. 00 -20. 00. Hasil pemeriksaan contoh udara : konsentrasi CO pada hari Rabu dan Jum'at, pada jam 10. 00 -11. 00 minimal 0 ppm, maksimal 16, 9 ppm ; jam 15. 00 -16. 00 minimal 16, 9 ppm, maksimal 38, 49 ppm dan pada jam 19. 00 -20. 00 minimal 3, 82 ppm, maksimal 44, 41 ppm. Untuk hari Sabtu dan Minggu konsentrasi CO pada jam 10. 00 - J 1. 00 minimal 1, 22 ppm, maksimal 43, 55 ppm, pada jam 15. 00 -16. 00 minimal 4, 32 ppm maksimal 102, 5 ppm. Hasil analisis statistik menunjukkan bahwa tingginya konsentrasi CO dipengaruhi oleh jam pengamatan dan ketinggian lantai yang berbeda. Strategi pengendaliannya adalah perlu pemasangan local exhaust, perlu penambahan udara bersih, perlu pengaturan lalu lintas di tempat parkir dan mengefektifkan serta memperhatikan program kerja yang ada di Fire Safety Office. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Master-3100005021734/1565 …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
STUDI PEMODELAN KUALITAS AIR DI PESISIR TIMUR SIDOARJO AKIBAT MASUKNYA AIR LUMPUR PORONG MELALUI PERPIPAAN KE LAUT Ridasmika Lumpur Porong tidak langsung dibuang karena mengandung banyak polutan. Maka, lumpur ini ditreatment dan air lumpur hasil tretment yang dibuang. Pada awalnya air lumpur akan dibuang langsung ke laut melalui perpipaan. Namun, hal ini tidak jadi dilaksanakan karena kekhawatiran mencemari laut secara langsung dan belum ada studi yang membahas tentang kualitas air di daerah pesisir Timur Sidoarjo jika air lumpur dibuang ke laut melalui perpipaan ke laut. Maka akan diadakan studi pemodelan kualitas air di Pesisir Timur Sidoarjo akibat masuknya air lumpur Porong melalui perpipaan ke laut. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pola penyebaran polutan konservatif dan kualitas air di pesisir Timur Sidoarjo jika air lumpur dialirkan melalui saluran pembuangan (pipa) ke laut. Pemodelan ini menggunakan software SMS (Surface Water Modelling System) dengan modul RMA 2 untuk memodelkan arus dan modul RMA 4 untuk memodelkan polutan. Pemodelan polutan dibuat 3 model dengan posisi pembuangan air lumpur (pipa) yang berbeda. Parameter polutan yang dipakai yaitu polutan konservatif dengan mengambil logam Pb dan Hg. Polutan lainnya yang dimodelkan yaitu minyak. Untuk mengetahui tingkat pencemaran hasil pemodelan polutan tersebut akan dibandingkan dengan baku mutu air laut menurut Kepmen LH No. 51 Tahun 2004. Berdasarkan hasil pemodelan, pola penyebaran polutan menunjukkan kenaikan konsentrasi secara logaritmik dengan model 3 (posisi pipa di tengah perairan) sebagai model dengan penyebaran konsentrasi terkecil pada setiap jam. Hasil analisa kualitas air di Pesisir Timur Sidoarjo ternyata berada di luar ambang batas untuk parameter logam Pb (tercemar logam Pb) minimum di jam ke 30 pada model 2 (posisi pipa di 3 titik pada muara Sungai Porong) dan maksimum di jam ke 57 pada model 3 (posisi pipa di tengah perairan), dan di luar ambang batas untuk parameter logam Hg (tercemar logam Hg) minimum di jam ke 240 pada model 2 dan maksimum di jam ke 1968 pada model 3 jika pembuangan air lumpur dilakukan secara kontinu dengan debit 10 m 3/s. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Undergraduate-3100007029080/6732…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
IDENTIFIKASI PENYEBARAN POLUTAN DI KALI SURABAYA DENGAN MENGGUNAKAN MODEL HP 2 S Anwar, Muhammad Chairul Badan sungai yang telah dimasuki oleh polutan cair akan membentuk suatu pola penyebaran. Pola penyebaran tersebut dapat diketahui dengan menggunakan Model Hidrodinamika Penyebaran Polutan di Sungai (HP 2 S). Model HP 2 S diperoleh dengan mengembangkan suatu persamaan yang diperoleh dari persamaan kontinuitas dan persamaan momentum. Kemudian persamaan yang diperoleh diselesaikan dengan menggunakan metode numerik, yaitu metode Leap Frog, karena metode ini mudah dan perumusannya exsplisit. Oleh karena exsplisit ini maka perlu dicari stabilitas, konsistensi & konvergensi dari metode ini. Metode ini dikatakan stabil jika bilangan courant-nya kurang dari satu, yaitu dapat dipenuhi apabila perbandingan antara piasan waktu dan jarak adalah kurang dari satu perkecepatan. Demikian juga dengan konsistensi dan konvergensinya bahwa model tersebut terbukti konsisten dan memiliki penyelesaian yang selalu konvergen. Kemudian penyelesaian dan persamaan diatas diselesaikan dengan perhitungan menggunakan Matlab. Hasil yang diperoleh bahwa terjadi perubahan penyebaran polutan pada nilai kecepatan dan konsentrasi karena adanya perbedaan lokasi. Kecepatan dan konsentrasi polutan akan semakin kecil nilainya ketika titik(lokasi) menjauhi sumber polutan (point source), begitu pula sebaliknya. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Undergraduate-3100006027472/5899…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DAYA DUKUNG LINGKUNGAN PANTAI KENJERAN DALAM MENERIMA BEBAN PENCEMARAN DARI DARAT Sudiati, Kartika Pantai Kenjeran sebagai salah satu tempat wisata di Surabaya, mempunyai potensi untuk dikembangkan. Salah satunya sebagai kawasan ekowista. Pada kenyataannya Pantai Kenjeran menerima beban pencemaran dari beberapa sumber. Salah satunya adalah dari darat. Dari hasil identifikasi lokasi studi, ditemui 4 sungai, yaitu Sungai Sukolilo Lor, Sungai Kejawen, Sungai Kenjeran dan Sungai Nambangan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi tingkat pencemaran di Pantai Kenjeran, mengetahui daya dukung Pantai Kenjeran dalam menerima beban pencemaran dari darat, dan merencanakan alternatif pengendalian pencemaran. Sampel diambil di sungai, muara sungai dan perairan pantai. Parameter yang diukur adalah BOD, logam berat Cu dan Pb. Dari hasil analisa persebaran polutan dengan menggunakan perhitungan analitis, diketahui bahwa input BOD dari sungai akan habis terurai pada saat mencapai muara. Sedangkan logam berat Cu, sebagai polutan konservatif, akan mempunyai bentuk yang tetap hingga mencapai laut. Kemudian analisa dilanjutkan dengan melakukan analisa numerik persebaran dengan menggunakan software SMS. Analisa persebaran polutan ini dilakukan dengan berbagai variasi beban pencemaran dari darat. Hasil analisa laboratorium menunjukkan keempat sungai tersebut mengalami pencemaran bahan organik BOD dan logam berat Cu (PP Kota Surabaya No. 3 tahun 2004). Di perairan pantai terjadi pencemaran logam berat Cu. Konsentrasi BOD di perairan pantai masih di bawah baku mutu Kep. Men LH No. 51 tahun 2004. Sedangkan logam berat Pb tidak ditemui di sungai maupun di perairan pantai. Daya dukung lingkungan Pantai Kenjeran dianalisa dengan menggunakan software SMS. Hasil running menunjukkan bahwa untuk polutan BOD masih belum dapat digunakan sebagai acuan dalam penentuan daya dukung. Untuk polutan Cu dengan variasi beban pencemaran yang paling rendah, menunjukkan di atas baku mutu air laut. Sedangkan untuk polutan Pb dengan variasi beban pencemaran yang paling rendah, menunjukkan di bawah baku mutu air laut. Alternatif pengendalian pencemaran pantai dan laut dapat dilakukan melalui instrumen ekologi, teknologi, ekonomi, sosial-budaya dan pendidikan, dan hukum dan ditindak lanjuti dengan monitoring. Sumber: http: //digilib. its. ac. id/ITS-Master-3100007029354/5652…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
EKOLOGI KUANTITATIF Quantitative ecology is the application of advanced mathematical and statistical tools to any number of problems in the field of ecology. It is a small but growing subfield in ecology, reflecting the demand among practicing ecologists to interpret ever larger and more complex data sets using quantitative reasoning. Quantitative ecologists might apply some combination of deterministic or stochastic mathematical models to theoretical questions or they might use sophisticated methods in applied statistics for experimental design and hypothesis testing. Typical problems in quantitative ecology include estimating the dynamics and status of wild populations, modeling the impacts of anthropogenic or climatic change on ecological communities, and predicting the spread of invasive species or disease outbreaks. Quantitative ecology, which mainly focuses on statistical and computational methods for addressing applied problems, is distinct from theoretical ecology which tends to explore focus on understanding the dynamics of simple mechanistic models and their implications for a general set of biological systems using mathematical arguments. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Quantitative_ecology…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
MATHEMATICAL MODEL A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical modelling. Mathematical models are used not only in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, meteorology) and engineering disciplines (e. g. computer science, artificial intelligence), but also in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology and political science); physicists, engineers, statisticians, operations research analysts and economists use mathematical models most extensively. A model may help to explain a system and to study the effects of different components, and to make predictions about behaviour. Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. In general, mathematical models may include logical models, as far as logic is taken as a part of mathematics. In many cases, the quality of a scientific field depends on how well the mathematical models developed on theoretical side agree with results of repeatable experiments. Lack of agreement between theoretical mathematical models and experimental measurements often leads to important advances as better theories are developed. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Mathematical_models…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
CONTOH MODEL MATEMATIKA Many everyday activities carried out without a thought are uses of mathematical models. A geographical map projection of a region of the earth onto a small, plane surface is a model which can be used for many purposes such as planning travel. Another simple activity is predicting the position of a vehicle from its initial position, direction and speed of travel, using the equation that distance travelled is the product of time and speed. This is known as dead reckoning when used more formally. Mathematical modelling in this way does not necessarily require formal mathematics; animals have been shown to use dead reckoning. Model of a particle in a potential-field. In this model we consider a particle as being a point of mass which describes a trajectory in space which is modeled by a function giving its coordinates in space as a function of time. The potential field is given by a function V : R 3 → R and the trajectory is a solution of the differential equation. Note this model assumes the particle is a point mass, which is certainly known to be false in many cases in which we use this model; for example, as a model of planetary motion. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
MODEL PERILAKU KONSUMEN YANG RASIONAL In this model we assume a consumer faces a choice of n commodities labeled 1, 2, . . . , n each with a market price p 1, p 2, . . . , pn. The consumer is assumed to have a cardinal utility function U (cardinal in the sense that it assigns numerical values to utilities), depending on the amounts of commodities x 1, x 2, . . . , xn consumed. The model further assumes that the consumer has a budget M which is used to purchase a vector x 1, x 2, . . . , xn in such a way as to maximize U(x 1, x 2, . . . , xn). The problem of rational behavior in this model then becomes an optimization problem, that is: subject to: This model has been used in general equilibrium theory, particularly to show existence and Pareto efficiency of economic equilibria. However, the fact that this particular formulation assigns numerical values to levels of satisfaction is the source of criticism (and even ridicule). However, it is not an essential ingredient of theory and again this is an idealization. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
PERTUMBUHAN POPULASI A simple (though approximate) model of population growth is the Malthusian growth model. A slightly more realistic and largely used population growth model is the logistic function, and its extensions. A population is all the organisms that both belong to the same group or species and live in the same geographical area. In ecology the population of a certain species in a certain area is estimated using the Lincoln Index. The area that is used to define a sexual population is such that inter-breeding is possible between any pair within the area and more probable than cross-breeding with individuals from other areas. Normally breeding is substantially more common within the area than across the border. In sociology, population refers to a collection of human beings. Demography is a social science which entails the statistical study of human populations. This article refers mainly to human population. Population growth is the change in a population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals of any species in a population using "per unit time" for measurement. In biology, the term population growth is likely to refer to any known organism, but this article deals mostly with the application of the term to human populations in demography. In demography, population growth is used informally for the more specific term population growth rate (see below), and is often used to refer specifically to the growth of the human population of the world. Determinants of population growth Population growth is determined by four factors, births(B), deaths(D), immigrants(I), and emigrants(E). Using a formula expressed as ∆P≡(B-D)+(I-E) In other words, the population growth of a period can be calculated in two parts, natural growth of population (BD) and mechanical growth of population (I-E), in which Mechanical growth of population is mainly affected by social factors, e. g. the advanced economies are growing faster while the backward economies are growing slowly even with negative growth. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Population_growth…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
LAJU PERTUMBUHAN POPULASI In demographics and ecology, population growth rate (PGR) is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases in a given time period as a fraction of the initial population. Specifically, PGR ordinarily refers to the change in population over a unit time period, often expressed as a percentage of the number of individuals in the population at the beginning of that period. This can be written as the formula: The most common way to express population growth is as a percentage, not as a rate. The change in population over a unit time period is expressed as a percentage of the population at the beginning of the time period. That is: For small time periods and growth rates, the added population is the growth rate multiplied by the time period. A positive growth ratio (or rate) indicates that the population is increasing, while a negative growth ratio indicates the population is decreasing. A growth ratio of zero indicates that there were the same number of people at the two times -- net difference between births, deaths a growth rate may be zero even when there are significant changes in the birth rates, death rates, immigration rates, and age distribution between the two times. Equivalently, percent death rate = the average number of deaths in a year for every 100 people in the total population. If the length of the time is taken smaller and smaller, the PGR approaches the logarithmic derivative of the population function P. If the population as a function of time is exponential, say P(t) = Ceat, the logarithmic derivative is a. Thus, the PGR approximates the exponent a for populations with exponential growth. A related measure is the net reproduction rate. In the absence of migration, a net reproduction rate of more than one indicates that the population of women is increasing, while a net reproduction rate less than one (sub-replacement fertility) indicates that the population of women is decreasing.
PERTUMBUHAN EKSPONENSIAL Exponential growth (including exponential decay when the growth rate is negative) occurs when the growth rate of the value of a mathematical function is proportional to the function's current value. In the case of a discrete domain of definition with equal intervals it is also called geometric growth or geometric decay (the function values form a geometric progression). The formula for exponential growth of a variable x at the (positive or negative) growth rate r, as time t goes on in discrete intervals (that is, at integer times 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ), is: Xt = X 0 (1+r)t where is the value of x at time 0. For example, with a growth rate of r = 5% = 0. 05, going from any integer value of time to the next integer causes x at the second time to be 1. 05 times (i. e. , 5% larger than) what it was at the previous time. The exponential growth model is also known as the Malthusian growth model. Human population, if the number of births and deaths person per year were to remain at current levels (but also see logistic growth). For example, according to the United States Census Bureau, over the last 100 years (1910 to 2010), the population of the United States of America is exponentially increasing at an average rate of one and a half percent a year (1. 5%). This means that the doubling time Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Exponential_growth…. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
FUNGSI LOGISTIK A logistic function or logistic curve is a common sigmoid curve, given its name in 1844 or 1845 by Pierre François Verhulst who studied it in relation to population growth. A Generalized logistic curve can model the "S-shaped" behaviour (abbreviated S-curve) of growth of some population P. The initial stage of growth is approximately exponential; then, as saturation begins, the growth slows, and at maturity, growth stops. Fungsi Sigmoid Logistik yang Baku Fungsi logistik sederhana dapat didefinisikan dengan formula: P(t) = 1 / (1 + e-t) where the variable P might be considered to denote a population, where e is Euler's number and the variable t might be thought of as time. For values of t in the range of real numbers from −∞ to +∞, the S-curve shown is obtained. In practice, due to the nature of the exponential function e−t, it is sufficient to compute t over a small range of real numbers such as [− 6, +6]. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
FUNGSI LOGISTIK Fungsi logistik digunakan pada beragam bidang kajian, termasuk jaringan syaraf buatan, biology, biomathematics, demography, economics, chemistry, mathematical psychology, probability, sociology, political science dan statistics. Model ini mempunyai derivasi yang mudah dihitung: It also has the property that Thus, the function is odd. MODEL REGRESI LOGISTIK Regresi logistik (kadang disebut model logistik atau model logit), dalam statistika digunakan untuk prediksi probabilitas kejadian suatu peristiwa dengan mencocokkan data pada fungsi logit kurva logistik. Metode ini merupakan model linier umum yang digunakan untuk regresi binomial. Seperti analisis regresi pada umumnya, metode ini menggunakan beberapa variabel prediktor, baik numerik maupun kategori. Misalnya, probabilitas bahwa orang yang menderita serangan jantung pada waktu tertentu dapat diprediksi dari informasi usia, jenis kelamin, dan indeks massa tubuh. Regresi logistik juga digunakan secara luas pada bidang kedokteran dan ilmu sosial, maupun pemasaran seperti prediksi kecenderungan pelanggan untuk membeli suatu produk atau berhenti berlangganan. Sumber: http: //id. wikipedia. org/wiki/Regresi_logistik …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
LOGISTIC DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION The logistic function is the solution of the simple first-order non-linear differential equation: where P is a variable with respect to time t and with boundary condition P(0) = 1/2. This equation is the continuous version of the logistic map. The qualitative behavior is easily understood in terms of the phase line: the derivative is 0 at P = 0 or 1 and the derivative is positive for P between 0 and 1, and negative for P above 1 or less than 0 (though negative populations do not generally accord with a physical model). This yields an unstable equilibrium at 0, and a stable equilibrium at 1, and thus for any value of P greater than 0 and less than 1, P grows to 1. One may readily find the (symbolic) solution to be: Choosing the constant of integration ec = 1 gives the other well-known form of the definition of the logistic curve: More quantitatively, as can be seen from the analytical solution, the logistic curve shows early exponential growth for negative t, which slows to linear growth of slope 1/4 near t = 0, then approaches y = 1 with an exponentially decaying gap. The logistic function is the inverse of the natural logit function and so can be used to convert the logarithm of odds into a probability; the conversion from the log-likelihood ratio of two alternatives also takes the form of a logistic curve. The logistic sigmoid function is related to the hyperbolic tangent, A. p. by:
ECOLOGY POPULATION GROWTH. A typical application of the logistic equation is a common model of population growth, originally due to Pierre-François Verhulst in 1838, where the rate of reproduction is proportional to both the existing population and the amount of available resources, all else being equal. The Verhulst equation was published after Verhulst had read Thomas Malthus' An Essay on the Principle of Population. Verhulst derived his logistic equation to describe the self-limiting growth of a biological population. The equation is also sometimes called the Verhulst-Pearl equation following its rediscovery in 1920. Alfred J. Lotka derived the equation again in 1925, calling it the law of population growth. Letting P represent population size (N is often used in ecology instead) and t represent time, this model is formalized by the differential equation: where the constant r defines the growth rate and K is the carrying capacity. In the equation, the early, unimpeded growth rate is modeled by the first term +r. P. The value of the rate r represents the proportional increase of the population P in one unit of time. Later, as the population grows, the second term, which multiplied out is −r. P 2/K, becomes larger than the first as some members of the population P interfere with each other by competing for some critical resource, such as food or living space. This antagonistic effect is called the bottleneck, and is modeled by the value of the parameter K. The competition diminishes the combined growth rate, until the value of P ceases to grow (this is called maturity of the population). Dividing both sides of the equation by K gives Now setting gives the differential equation: For we have the particular case with which we started. In ecology, species are sometimes referred to as r-strategist or K-strategist depending upon the selective processes that have shaped their life history strategies. The solution to the equation (with being the initial population) is Where: Which is to say that K is the limiting value of P: the highest value that the population can reach given infinite time (or come close to reaching in finite time). It is important to stress that the carrying capacity is asymptotically reached independently of the initial value Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
GOMPERTZ FUNCTION A Gompertz curve or Gompertz function, named after Benjamin Gompertz, is a sigmoid function. It is a type of mathematical model for a time series, where growth is slowest at the start and end of a time period. The righthand or future value asymptote of the function is approached much more gradually by the curve than the left-hand or lower valued asymptote, in contrast to the logistic function in which both asymptotes are approached by the curve symmetrically. Formula: where a is the upper asymptote, since b, c are negative numbers b sets the x displacement c sets the growth rate (x scaling) e is Euler's Number (e = 2. 71828. . . ) Graphs of Gompertz curves, showing the effect of varying one of a, b, c while keeping the others constant : Varying a Sumber: …http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Gompertz_curve. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
REGRESI LOGISTIK In statistics, logistic regression (sometimes called the logistic model or logit model) is a type of regression analysis used for predicting the outcome of a binary dependent variable (a variable which can take only two possible outcomes, e. g. "yes" vs. "no" or "success" vs. "failure") based on one or more predictor variables. Logistic regression attempts to model the probability of a "yes/success" outcome using a linear function of the predictors. Specifically, the log-odds of success (the logit of the probability) is fit to the predictors using linear regression. Logistic regression is one type of discrete choice model, which in general predict categorical dependent variables — either binary or multi-way. Logistic regression is a generalized linear model, specifically a type of binomial regression. It is often compared with probit regression, the other main type of binomial regression, which transforms the probability using the probit function (the quantile function of the normal distribution) rather than the logit function. Both functions have a similar shape, and both serve to transform the limited range of a probability, restricted to the range , into the full range , which makes the transformed value more suitable for fitting using a linear function. The effect of both functions is to transform the middle of the probability range (near 50%) more or less linearly, while stretching out the extremes (near 0% or 100%) exponentially. The logistic function, with z on the horizontal axis and ƒ(z) on the vertical axis Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
REGRESI LOGISTIK. An explanation of logistic regression begins with an explanation of the logistic function, which, like probabilities, always takes on values between zero and one: A graph of the function is shown in figure 1. The input is z and the output is ƒ(z). The logistic function is useful because it can take as an input any value from negative infinity to positive infinity, whereas the output is confined to values between 0 and 1. The variable z represents the exposure to some set of independent variables, while ƒ(z) represents the probability of a particular outcome, given that set of explanatory variables. The variable z is a measure of the total contribution of all the independent variables used in the model and is known as the logit. The variable z is usually defined as where is called the "intercept" and , , , and so on, are called the "regression coefficients" of , , respectively. The intercept is the value of z when the value of all independent variables are zero (e. g. the value of z in someone with no risk factors). Each of the regression coefficients describes the size of the contribution of that risk factor. A positive regression coefficient means that the explanatory variable increases the probability of the outcome, while a negative regression coefficient means that the variable decreases the probability of that outcome; a large regression coefficient means that the risk factor strongly influences the probability of that outcome, while a near-zero regression coefficient means that risk factor has little influence on the probability of that outcome. Logistic regression is a useful way of describing the relationship between one or more independent variables (e. g. , age, sex, etc. ) and a binary response variable, expressed as a probability, that has only two values, such as having cancer ("has cancer" or "doesn't have cancer"). Sumber: …. . Diunduh 19/4/2012
DIAGRAM SEBAB - AKIBAT MENEMUKAN AKAR MASALAH (Underlying / ROOT causes) The Cause & Effect (CE) diagram, also sometimes called the ‘fishbone’ diagram, is a tool for discovering all the possible causes for a particular effect. The effect being examined is normally some troublesome aspect of product or service quality, such as 'a machined part not to specification', 'delivery times varying too widely', 'excessive number of bugs in software under development', and so on, but the effect may also relate to internal processes such as 'high rate of team failures'. The major purpose of the CE Diagram is to act as a first step in problem solving by generating a comprehensive list of possible causes. It can lead to immediate identification of major causes and point to the potential remedial actions or, failing this, it may indicate the best potential areas for further exploration and analysis. At a minimum, preparing a CE Diagram will lead to greater understanding of the problem. The CE Diagram was invented by Professor Kaoru Ishikawa of Tokyo University, a highly regarded Japanese expert in quality management. He first used it in 1943 to help explain to a group of engineers at Kawasaki Steel Works how a complex set of factors could be related to help understand a problem. CE Diagrams have since become a standard tool of analysis in Japan and in the West in conjunction with other analytical and problemsolving tools and techniques. CE Diagrams are also often called Ishikawa Diagrams, after their inventor, or Fishbone Diagrams because the diagram itself can look like the skeleton of a fish. Sumber: http: //www. hci. com. au/hcisite 3/toolkit/causeand. htm …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
GUNAKAN DIAGRAM SEBAB-AKIBAT PADA SAAT MEMULAI MENGKAJI PERMASALAHAN Construct a CE Diagram whenever you need to investigate the causes or contributing factors for an effect (be it a quality characteristic or other outcome) which is of concern to you. This will most likely be after you have conducted a general investigation of problems for a particular function, product, or service, and ranked them using a Pareto Chart. The effect ranked highest provides the starting point for a CE Diagram. For example, you may just have completed an investigation of all the reasons recorded for goods being returned by customers and found that the highest incidence relates to incorrect goods being sent. A CE Diagram can be constructed to explore the possible causes for this. Developing a CE Diagram in a team meeting is a very effective technique for, concentrating team members' attention on a specific problem pooling, and reflecting back, team thinking constructing a picture of the problem at hand without resorting to the tight discipline of a flowchart M. B. Beck: Mathematical Modeling of Water Quality: A Case Study in the UK The purpose of the case study (the River Cam in eastern England) is that it illustrates a certain viewpoint on the modeling process. The modeling process can be separated into the following : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Design and implementation of specialized experimentation; Choice of a priori model; Model structure identification; Parameter estimation; Verification; and Sumber: Validation. Mathematical Modeling of Water Quality. Summarv Report of a Il. ASA Workshop , September 13 -16 1977 Me Be Beck
BAGAIMANA MEMBUAT DIAGRAM SEBAB-AKIBAT This is a three step process. Step 1 Write down the effect to be investigated and draw the 'backbone' arrow to it. In the example shown below the effect is 'Incorrect deliveries'. . Step 2 Identify all the broad areas of enquiry in which the causes of the effect being investigated may lie. For incorrect deliveries the diagram may then become: Step 3 This step requires the greatest amount of work and imagination because it requires you (or you and your team) to write in all the detailed possible causes in each of the broad areas of enquiry. Each cause identified should be fully explored for further more specific causes which, in turn, contribute to them. You continue this process of branching off into more and more directions until every possible cause has been identified. The final result will represent a sort of a 'mind dump' of all the factors relating to the effect being explored and the relationships between them. Sumber: http: //www. hci. com. au/hcisite 3/toolkit/causeand. htm…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
TIPE KLASIFIKASI PRODUKSI This type differs from the basic type above in that each discrete stage in the production process leading up to the effect being examined is shown along the main arrow or 'backbone' of the diagram. Possible causes are then shown as branches off these as shown in the illustration overleaf. This type of CE Diagram is often easier to construct and understand because those involved are already familiar with each of the production steps identified. Sumber: http: //www. hci. com. au/hcisite 3/toolkit/causeand. htm…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM What it is: Graphically illustrates the relationship between a given outcome and all the factors that influence this outcome. Sometimes called an Ishikawa or “fishbone" diagram, it helps show the relationship of the parts (and subparts) to the whole by: • Determining the factors that cause a positive or negative outcome (or effect) • Focusing on a specific issue without resorting to complaints and irrelevant discussion • Determining the root causes of a given effect • Identifying areas where there is a lack of data . Identify factors and subfactors. Use an idea-generating technique from Section 2 to identify the factors and subfactors within each major category. An easy way to begin is to use the major categories as a catalyst. For example, “What policies are causing. . . ? ” Sumber: http: //web 2. concordia. ca/Quality/tools/12 fishbone. pdf…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
. Pollution Prevention for Odor Reduction in Pig Farming Using Biogas Production Technology in Nakhon Pathom Province Mr. Somsak Chaipipat, Public Health Specialist Bureau of Environmental Health, Department of Health, Tel : 5904353 Pig farming is one among 130 enterprises endangering to health according to Public Health Act 1992. The survey, by Department of Health in 1991, showed that the nuisance complaints due to pig farming were about 94% of the total farms The major nuisance problems arising from pig farming Were odor, manure, wastewater, chemical use and fly breeding source. These problems caused unpleasant conditions for the people who lived nearby the farm . Cause and Effect Analysis One of the pig farm selected in Nakhon Pathom Province of Thailand can be mapped out in the process of farming (Figure 1). To determine the causes of bad odor, the sources of odor in the farm had to be investigated by a walk through survey and by interviewing the farmers. After analyzing the data, the cause and effect diagrams were shown (Figure 2) in four major categories. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
MANUSIA Lack of knowledge and awareness among farmers and labourers on better farming and waste management. Material Type of food which caused the odor in the farm or effected to a digestive system of the pig which changed the volume and characteristic of defecated waste. Unlimited number of pigs in each pigsty made overcrowded and raised the problem of waste load. Equipment Poor ventilation and air quality inside pig buildings could effect the way to eliminate the odor level and to health. No slope and unsmooth surface in the pigsty made difficult to remove or scrape the manure to the treatment plant. Procedure Feeding frequency and technique could effect the excess amount of waste load. High water usage in cleaning and
APPLICATION OF POLLUTION PREVENTION To cope with the odor problem, the farmer chose biogas production technology to prevent the pollution which will be described as follows: There are two buildings in the farm, one for 100 sows and another one for 150 piglets. The building for sow is designed with entire slotted floor. Beneath the floor there is a concrete slab floor with a sloping gutter, along the two sides of the floor serving as the collecting device for the waste as it is scraped or washed form the floor. The building for piglet is a solid concrete slab floor unit in which 100% is under the roof constructed of wood. There also sloping gutters along two sides of the floor. All manure and waste from the two buildings are scraped and washed every 2 days. The waste empties into the gutters running to the 30 m of fixed dome Thai-German biogas plant. The plant is approximately 50 meters away from the farm and household. Biogas production technology is anaerobic bacteria decomposition of animal manures conducted to yield approximately 60% methane. The study showed that one kilogram of pig manure can produce 100 liters of methane gas per day The gas can be directly burnt as a fuel for a variety of purposes of household activities and farming, for example, cooking, brooding the litter, fueling of internal combustion engines to generate electricity for pumping and lighting. In addition, liquid effluent and well-digested sludge generally do not have the offensive odor of decomposing sludge. They can be used as fertilizers for 1, 600 m, 1, 600 m and 400 m of growing land of Chinese celery, collard and Chinese convolvulus, respectively. The cost for constructing 30 m of the plant can be calculated and identified in three items, as follow: Construction material cost. Baht 34, 265. 0 Labor cost. Baht 31, 955. 0 Gas pipeline & equipment cost. Baht 2, 541. 0 Total cost. Baht 68, 761. 0 The benefits possibly achieved beyond biogas production can be identified into two ways. Sumber: http: //advisor. anamai. moph. go. th/factsheet/pig. htm…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
S. E. JORGENSEN : WATER QUALITY MODELING OF LAKES Dr. Jorgensen offered the detailed strategy for water quality modeling. This strategy for modeling is composed of: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Definition of the goal for model development and application; Selection of the state variables; Development of conceptual flow diagrams; Development of system state equations; Parameter sensitivity analysis; Calibration of model with field data; and Validation of model with a second and further independent set(s) of field data. The key question is determining "sufficient complexity" of the model to meet the stated goal for model application. Broadly speaking, complexity is interpreted as the number of state variables and the goal is the response of the ecological system--e. g. , phytoplankton growth--to a change in nutrient input loadlngs. In order to confer a quantitative value to "sufficient complexity", the concept of ecological buffer capacity is introduced. We can intuitively relate such a concept to the stated goal of the modeling exercise, and formally ecological buffer capacity can be expressed and computed in terms of the exergy of the ecological system. More precisely, exergy, the mechanical energy equivalent of distance from thermodynamic equilibrium, is found to be correlated with ecological buffer capacity. The contribution of each state variable to the total exergy is calculated from given field observations and selection may be made between those variables that make a significant contribution and those that do not. For example, from this kind of analysis of a eutrophication model one concludes that sediment is significant but the division of zooplankton into two classes is not significant. Notice here, however, that the analyst is once again involved in a subjective judgment on the required level of model complexity: he must make a decision on what is and what is not significant. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
APAKAH PENCEMARAN LINGKUNGAN? • • Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment We will be examining 3 main parts of pollution – Water Pollution – Air Pollution – Land Pollution HOW TO CONTROL WATER POLLUTION? Water pollution can be controlled in the multiple ways. It is best controlled by the dilution of water. The pollutants must be treated chemically and must be converted into the non toxic substances. The low level of radioactive wastes in the water is removed by the oxidation of ponds. There are certain chemicals which act on the organic insecticide and are used in the pesticide. There are different techniques which are very helpful in the process of thermal pollution and involve the cooling, evaporation, water cooling; cooling can be wet or dry. Their main aim is to keep the water cool in rivers and streams. The shallow ponds must be used to store the domestic and industrial wastes. One must avoid the large ponds. The waste has a presence of sunlight and organic nutrients which may lead to the larger growth of bacteria which act on the waste matter. The reclaimed polluted water can be used in making fertilizers as it is rich in phosphorous, potassium and nitrogen. It can also be used for the irrigation and factories purposes. The proper sewage treatment plans play a crucial role in the reclaimed polluted water. There must be a law which ensures that the industries must treat the waste before the water is discharged into the rivers and seas. The polluted water can be treated by the use of a plant known as water hyacinth which is also referred as kaloli. It deals with the biological and chemical waste. The heavy metals are also removed by it. Sumber: http: //www. thebigger. com/biology/pollution/how-to-control-water-pollution/…. Diunduh 21/4/2012
SEBAB-SEBAB PENCEMARAN AIR • Factors that contribute to water pollution can be categorized into two different groups – Point sources – Non-point sources Point sources are the easiest to identify and control Non point sources are ambiguously defined and harder to control • • PENCEMARAN AIR: Beragam bentuk • • PENYAKIT: In developing nations, 80% of diseases are water-related. Senyawa organik sintetik Senyawa an-organik & Mineral seperti asam-asam dll. Substansi Radioactive Limbah yang butuh oksigen Unsur hara tanaman Sedimen Buangan limbah panas Bentuk-bentuk Pencemaran Air • • • Senyawa an-organik: Asam-asam, garam, logam toksik Satu gram Pb dalam 20, 000 liter air mengakibatkan tidak layak minum. Pb lazim ditemukan pada pipa-pipa yang sudah tua / aus. Berapa batas ambang aman As untuk air minum ? Berapa untuk Pb ?
TITIK-TITIK SUMBER PENCEMARAN • • Some point sources of water pollution include – Waste products from factories – Waste from sewage system – Waste from power plants – Waste from underground coalmines – Waste from oil wells They are called point sources because they are direct sources of water pollution and can be reduced and monitored DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN Disposing of waste has huge environmental impacts and can cause serious problems. In the UK much is buried in landfill sites – holes in the ground, sometimes old quarries, sometimes specially dug. Some waste will eventually rot, but not all, and in the process it may smell or generate methane gas, which is explosive and contributes to the greenhouse effect. Leachate produced as waste decomposes may cause pollution. Badly-managed landfill sites may attract vermin or cause litter. Incinerating waste also causes problems, because plastics tend to produce toxic substances, such as dioxins, when they are burnt. Gases from incineration may cause air pollution and contribute to acid rain, while the ash from incinerators may contain heavy metals and other toxins. Because of these problems there active campaigns against waste incineration. Greenpeace actively worked on these issues and some information, including a map of UK waste incinerators, can be found by searching the Greenpeace website for waste incineration. However, burning waste can generate energy and there are operational schemes. The Renewable Energy Association website provides more information including a map of biomass and energy from waste projects. Throwing away things wastes resources. It wastes the raw materials and energy used in making the items and it wastes money. Reducing waste means less environmental impact, less resources and energy used and saves money. Sumber: http: //www. greenchoices. org/green-living/waste-recycling/environmental-impacts…. Diunduh 21/4/2012
SUMBER PENCEMAR BUKAN-TITIK • The term non-point source encompasses a large range of sources such as: – when rain or snow moves through the ground and picks up pollutants as it moves towards a major body of water – the runoff of fertilizers from farm animals and crop land – air pollutants getting washed or deposited to earth – storm water drainage from lawns, parking lots, and streets Terlalu banyak air : BANJIR • • Banjir alamiah disebabkan oleh hujan lebat atau mencairnya salju. Ini menyebabkan air dalam sungai melimpas ke daerah sekitarnya, yang disebut lembah sungai (dataran banjir) • Lembah sungai ini, termasuk lahan sawah produktif , membantu untuk: — Menyediakan kontrol alami atas banjir dan erosi — Menjaga kualitas air yang bagus — Mengisi groundwater • When the floodwater recede, deposits of silt are left behind, creating a nutrient-rich soil. Pe. NDUDUK menempati lembah sungai karena beberapa alasan : 1. Tanahnya subur 2. Cukup air untuk irigasi 3. Lahan datar cocok untuk pertanian 4. Menggunakan aliran sungai untuk transportasi Akan tetapi, setiap tahun banjir (“bencana alam”) mengakibatkan kematian banyak orang & kerugian material berjuta dolar. Kegiatan manusia telah mengakibatkan peningkatan frekuensi banjir yg secara dramatis meningkatkan kematian dan
PENCEMARAN UDARA THOR - an Integrated Air Pollution Forecasting and Scenario Management System Since 1996, the National Environmental Research Institute (NERI), Denmark, has developed a comprehensive and unique integrated air pollution model system, THOR. The model system includes several meteorological and air pollution models capable of operating for different applications and different scales. The system is capable of accurate and high resolution three-days forecasting of weather and air pollution from regional scale over urban background scale and down to individual street canyons in cities - on both sides of the streets. Coupling models over different scales makes it possible to account for contributions from local, near-local as well as remote emission sources in order to describe the air quality at a specific location - e. g. in a street canyon or in a park. The system is used in connection with the urban and background monitoring programs in Denmark. Furthermore, the system can be used to forecast air pollution from accidental releases as e. g. power plants, industrial sites and natural or human made fires. The main purposes of the THOR system are forecasting, nowcasting, emission reduction scenarios, retrospective analyses and air pollution assessments and management. The system can be used for information and warning of the public in cases of high air pollution levels and for policy management (e. g. by emission reduction or traffic scenarios) of many different chemical compounds. The system can be applied operationally for any location all over the world. The system consists of several different air pollution models - all developed at NERI during the last decades. A schematic diagram of the different modules and the data flow chart of the THOR system is shown in the figure below. The model system consists of a coupling of several models, briefly described in the following. Sumber: http: //www 2. dmu. dk/1_viden/2_Miljoe-tilstand/3_luft/4_spredningsmodeller/5_Thor/default_en. asp …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
THOR - an Integrated Air Pollution Forecasting and Scenario Management System Applications Present capabilities of the THOR system include all aspects within forecasting, nowcasting, supplement to monitoring programs, scenarios, retrospective analyses, assessment and management of air pollution. Some examples are: 1. 2. Three-day high-resolution regional weather forecasts. Three-day regional air pollution forecasts of 56 chemical compounds, e. g. ozone, sulphur, nitrate, particles, etc. 3. Three-day urban background air quality in specifically identified cities. 4. Three-day urban air quality forecasts at street level - at both sides of the streets. 5. Three-day forecasts of accidental releases into the atmosphere from e. g. nuclear power plants, fires, chemical industries, etc. 6. Emission and traffic reduction scenarios for air pollution management and decision making. 7. Multiple-point and area source dispersion modelling, for determining the effects on air quality caused by proposed new emission sources (e. g. , new power plants, chemical industries, commercial activities). 8. Automated production of data, visualizations (maps and time series), information and warnings. 9. Data, forecasts and warnings are disseminated to the authorities and decision makers. 10. Data can be disseminated to the public via Internet or other media. Sumber: http: //www 2. dmu. dk/1_viden/2_Miljoe-tilstand/3_luft/4_spredningsmodeller/5_Thor/default_en. asp…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
THOR - an Integrated Air Pollution Forecasting and Scenario Management System Sumber: http: //www 2. dmu. dk/1_viden/2_Miljoe-tilstand/3_luft/4_spredningsmodeller/5_Thor/default_en. asp…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
THOR - an Integrated Air Pollution Forecasting and Scenario Management System The weather forecast A three-dimensional numerical weather forecast model, Eta, is applied. This model is initialized with data from a global circulation model, run at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction, NCEP, USA. Data from this global circulation model are the starting point for nearly all weather forecasts in the USA, and for many forecasts in Europe (e. g. , Belgium, Greece, Yugoslavia and Iceland). The spatial resolution of the weather forecast model is e. g. 39 km x 39 km over the global grid and 10 km x 10 km over a sub-domain (see the two figures below for an example). Three-dimensional information on winds, temperature, humidity, clouds, precipitation, turbulent fluxes, radiation, etc. can be visualized e. g. every six hours as maps and e. g. every one hour as time series for specific locations. The figures below show the precipitation and surface pressure on November 12 th, 2002 for Europe and Denmark. Sumber: http: //www 2. dmu. dk/1_viden/2_Miljoe-tilstand/3_luft/4_spredningsmodeller/5_Thor/default_en. asp…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
THOR - an Integrated Air Pollution Forecasting and Scenario Management System The long-range transported air pollution The weather forecast is used as input to a long-range transport air pollution model, the Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model, DEHM, producing air pollution forecasts on regional background scale (e. g. the greater European scale). The operational version of the model calculates transport, dispersion, deposition and chemistry (including photochemistry) of 56 chemical compounds. Furthermore, the model can be used to describe and forecast sand/dust storms. The emission data used in DEHM are derived from a combination of information provided by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) and global emission databases. The two figures below show concentrations of nitrogen-dioxide over Europe and Denmark on November 12 th, 2002. Sumber: http: //www 2. dmu. dk/1_viden/2_Miljoe-tilstand/3_luft/4_spredningsmodeller/5_Thor/default_en. asp…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
THOR - an Integrated Air Pollution Forecasting and Scenario Management System Air pollution in street canyons The output from the urban background model is used as input to the Operational Street Pollution Model, OSPM, producing the air pollution concentrations at street level at both sides of the streets in cities. The model calculates air concentrations of NO, NO 2, NOx, O 3, CO and benzene in the street canyon at both sides of the street. Particles will be included in the model in the near future. The OSPM has been successfully tested under specific European field campaigns in a variety of different climatic and air quality conditions in, e. g. , Copenhagen, Gothenburg, Helsinki, Oslo, Brussels, Berlin, Hanover, and Milano. It has also been tested and applied in Beijing, China, under a cooperation agreement with Tsinghua University. Sumber: http: //www 2. dmu. dk/1_viden/2_Miljoe-tilstand/3_luft/4_spredningsmodeller/5_Thor/default_en. asp…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
SEBAB-SEBAB PENCEMARAN UDARA • • One of the main causes of air pollution is the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, this happens because of Deforestation and fossil fuel burning Sulfur dioxide is another air polluter and is released into the atmosphere by the burning of sulfur containing compounds of fossil fuels. Sulfur oxides are very dangerous to humans at a high concentration. Sulfur in the atmosphere is responsible for acid rain Sulphur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO 2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO 2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO 2, forms H 2 SO 4, and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. Carbon dioxide (CO 2) - a colourless, odorless, non-toxic greenhouse gas also associated with ocean acidification, emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and respiration. It is otherwise recycled in the atmosphere in the carbon cycle. Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH 4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1, 3 -butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_pollution …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
PENCEMAR UDARA: CFCs • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) also contribute to air pollution by reducing the amount of ozone the stratosphere. CFCs come from a variety of places such as: – the burning of plastic foam items – leaking refrigerator equipment – spray cans A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is an organic compound that contains carbon, chlorine, and fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative of methane and ethane. A common subclass are the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which contain hydrogen, as well. They are also commonly known by the Du. Pont trade name Freon. The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12 or Freon-12). Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. The manufacture of such compounds has been phased out by the Montreal Protocol because they contribute to ozone depletion. Environmental impacts As previously discussed, CFCs were phased out via the Montreal Protocol due to their part in ozone depletion. However, the atmospheric impacts of CFCs are not limited to its role as an active ozone reducer. This anthropogenic compound is also a greenhouse gas, with a much higher potential to enhance the greenhouse effect than CO 2. Infrared bands trap heat from escaping earth's atmosphere. In the case of CFCs, the strongest of these bands are located at the spectral region – referred to as an atmospheric window due to the relative transparency of the atmosphere within this region. The strength of CFC bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere, at which the compound absorbs and emits radiation, are two factors that contribute to CFC's "super" greenhouse effect. Another such factor is the low concentration of the compound. Because CO 2 is close to saturation with high concentrations, it takes more of the substance to enhance the greenhouse effect. Conversely, the low concentration of CFCs allow their effects to increase linearly with mass Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbons …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
PENCEMAR ALAMIAH Pencemar-udara dari sumber alamiah adalah: – Asap dari kebakaran liar – Gas methana dari peternakan – Erupsi vulkanik A wildfire is any uncontrolled fire in combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area. Other names such as brush fire, bushfire, forest fire, desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, vegetation fire, and veldfire may be used to describe the same phenomenon depending on the type of vegetation being burned. A wildfire differs from other fires by its extensive size, the speed at which it can spread out from its original source, its potential to change direction unexpectedly, and its ability to jump gaps such as roads, rivers and fire breaks. Wildfires are characterized in terms of the cause of ignition, their physical properties such as speed of propagation, the combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire. Wildfire prevention refers to the preemptive methods of reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread. Effective prevention techniques allow supervising agencies to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources, and to limit the effects of future uncontrolled fires. A new and ecologically evolutionary practice, termed "Hydro-Pyrogeography", promises and claims to bound wildfire from passing through any such wildland-urban interface anywhere on earth that the practice is put into place, and thereby diminishing, even eliminating the above-referred oppositions and concerns to traditional fuel management techniques. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Wildfires …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
KONSEKWENSI PENCEMARAN UDARA • • • CO 2 is a good transmitter of sunlight, but it also partially restricts infrared radiation going back from the earth into space, which produces the so-called greenhouse effect that prevents a drastic cooling of the Earth during the night Increasing the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere reinforces this effect and is expected to result in a warming of the Earth's surface CO 2 in atmosphere GLOBAL WARMING The seven sources of CO 2 from fossil fuel combustion are (with percentage contributions for 2000– 2004): Seven main fossil fuel combustion sources Contribution (%) Liquid fuels (e. g. , gasoline, fuel oil) 36 % Solid fuels (e. g. , coal) 35 % Gaseous fuels (e. g. , natural gas) 20 % Cement production 3 % Flaring gas industrially and at wells < 1 % Non-fuel hydrocarbons < 1 % "International bunker fuels" of transport not included in national inventories 4 % Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
EFEK RUMAH KACA As a result of human activities lead to increased concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO 2) and other gases in the atmosphere. The increase in CO 2 concentration is due to the increase in fuel oil combustion (fuel), coal and other organic fuels which exceed the ability of plants and sea to absorb. Measurements are performed by the levels of CO 2 Mauna Loa Observatory show a significant rise in CO 2 levels of 313 ppm (parts per million) in 1960 to 375 ppm in 2005. Sumber: http: //organicgardeningmagazine. info/greenhouse-effect/ …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
HUJAN ASAM • When emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide from stationary sources are transported long distances by winds, they form secondary pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid vapor, and droplets containing solutions of sulfuric acid, sulfate, and nitrate salts • These chemicals descend to the earth's surface in wet form as rain or snow and in dry form as a gases fog, dew, or solid particles, it is known as acid rain or acid deposition Hujan asam diartikan sebagai segala macam hujan dengan p. H di bawah 5, 6. Hujan secara alami bersifat asam (p. H sedikit di bawah 6) karena karbondioksida (CO 2) di udara yang larut dengan air hujan memiliki bentuk sebagai asam lemah. Jenis asam dalam hujan ini sangat bermanfaat karena membantu melarutkan mineral dalam tanah yang dibutuhkan oleh tumbuhan dan binatang. Hujan asam disebabkan oleh belerang yang merupakan pengotor dalam bahan bakar fosil serta nitrogen di udara yang bereaksi dengan oksigen membentuk sulfur dioksida dan nitrogen oksida. Zat-zat ini berdifusi ke atmosfer dan bereaksi dengan air untuk membentuk asam sulfat dan asam nitrat yang mudah larut sehingga jatuh bersama air hujan. Air hujan yang masam tersebut akan meningkatkan kadar keasaman tanah dan air permukaan yang terbukti berbahaya bagi kehidupan ikan dan tanaman. Usaha untuk mengatasi hal ini saat ini sedang gencar dilaksanakan. Masalah hujan asam tidak hanya meningkat sejalan dengan pertumbuhan populasi dan industri tetapi telah berkembang menjadi lebih luas. Penggunaan cerobong asap yang tinggi untuk mengurangi polusi lokal berkontribusi dalam penyebaran hujan asam, karena emisi gas yang dikeluarkannya akan masuk ke sirkulasi udara regional yang memiliki jangkauan lebih luas. Sering sekali, hujan asam terjadi di daerah yang jauh dari lokasi sumbernya, di mana daerah pegunungan cenderung memperoleh lebih banyak karena tingginya curah hujan di sini. Sumber: http: //id. wikipedia. org/wiki/Hujan_asam …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
KABUT ASAP = Smog • • With the introduction of petroleum to replace coal economies in countries, photochemical smog has become predominant in many cities, which are located in sunny, warm, and dry climates with many motor vehicles Worst episodes of photochemical smog tends to occur in summer Asbut, istilah adaptasi dari bahasa Inggris smog (smoke and fog), adalah kasus pencemaran udara berat yang bisa terjadi berhari-hari hingga hitungan bulan. Di bawah keadaan cuaca yang menghalang sirkulasi udara, asbut bisa menutupi suatu kawasan dalam waktu yang lama, seperti kasus di London, Los Angeles, Athena, Beijing, Hong Kong atau Ruhr Area dan terus menumpuk hingga berakibat membahayakan. Asbut Fotokimia Disebabkan oleh beberapa jenis hasil pembakaran bahan kimia yang dikatalisasi oleh kehadiran cahaya matahari. Asbut ini mengandung: hasil oksidasi nitrogen, misalnya nitrogen dioksida, ozon troposferik, VOCs (volatile organic compounds), dan peroxyacyl nitrat (PAN). VOC's adalah hasil penguapan dari bahan bakar minyak, cat, solven, pestisida dan bahan kimia lain. Sementara oksida nitrogen banyak dihasilkan oleh proses pembakaran dalam bahan bakar fosil seperti mesin mobil, pembangkit listrik, dan truk. Asbut fotokimia biasanya terjadi di daerah-daerah industri atau kota padat mobil yang menghasilkan emisi berat dan terkonsentrasi. Tetapi asbut fotokimia tidak hanya menjadi masalah di kota-kota industri, sebab bisa menyebar ke daerah non industri. Asbut Klasik Merupakan asbut yang terjadi di London setelah terjadinya revolusi industri yang menghasilkan pencemaran besaran dari pembakaran batu bara. Pembakaran ini menghasilkan campuran asap dan sulfur dioksida. Gunung berapi yang juga menyebabkan berlimpahnya sulfur dioksida di udara, menghasilkan asbut gunung berapi, atau vog (vulcanic smog, asbut vulkanis). Sumber: http: //id. wikipedia. org/wiki/Asbut …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN • Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone and peroxyacl nitrates (PANs), cause direct damage to leaves of crop plants and trees when they enter leaf pores (stomates) Chronic exposure of leaves and needles to air pollutants can also break down the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive water loss and damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost • Trees Reduce Temperature Trees reduce surrounding air temperature and create their own microclimates through transpiration and the effects of tree canopies. Tree canopies not only provide shade but they also reduce solar radiation absorption and provide heat storage. The larger the tree canopy, the greater the reduction of surrounding air temperature. Decreasing air temperature is effective in reducing air pollution because many of the chemicals that create pollution are temperature dependent. Shade from trees planted in parking lots can create small reductions, 1 to 2%, of the levels of harmful emissions produced from car ignitions. Trees Reduce Energy Usage Trees can keep buildings cooler in the summer and more insulated in winter. By blocking solar radiation and creating a cooler microclimate, trees offer buildings protection from summer heat. During winter, trees can provide effective wind breaks and block drafts from entering structures. This lowers the amount of energy used to heat or cool the building and reduces the air pollution created in the production of energy. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The following strategies can be used to design and manage urban forests to improve air quality : Greater tree cover will result in increased pollution removal; Dense evergreen canopies are better than sparse deciduous canopies for particulate matter removal; The greater the precipitation in a given area, the lower the pollution removal ability of trees for that area (in this case pollution is removed by precipitation); The less maintenance is required for a tree, the better that tree's contribution is for air pollution removal (use low maintenance trees and reduce gas or diesel use); Longer-lived trees will provide more pollution removal for a longer period of time; Plant trees in places that will provide summertime cooling for buildings and cars, and solar heating during the winter; Plant trees in highly urbanized areas with pollution problems; trees will remove more pollution in areas with higher pollution concentrations; Avoid using trees that are not resistant to air pollution. Sumber: http: //jacquelinelerche. suite 101. com/trees-reduce-urban-air-pollution-a 152758 …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
SEBAB-SEBAB PENCEMARAN LAHAN • Four Main causes of land pollution – Construction – Agriculture – Domestic waste – Industrial Waste Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by one or more combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bushfires. This is considered to be an important topic of the 21 st century due to the implications land degradation has upon agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effects on food security. It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. Land degradation is a broad term that can be applied differently across a wide range of scenarios. There are four main ways of looking at land degradation and its impact on the environment around it: 1. A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land. This can be seen through a loss of biomass, a loss of actual productivity or in potential productivity, or a loss or change in vegetative cover and soil nutrients. 2. A decline in the lands “usefulness”: A loss or reduction in the lands capacity to provide resources for human livelihoods. This can be measured from a baseline of past land use. 3. Loss of biodiversity: A loss of range of species or ecosystem complexity as a decline in the environmental quality. 4. Shifting ecological risk: increased vulnerability of the environment or people to destruction or crisis. This is measured through a baseline in the form of pre-existing risk of crisis or destruction. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Land_degradation…. Diunduh 21/4/2012
PERTANIAN • • As there are more and more people inhabiting the earth, food is in higher demand so forests are chopped down and turned into farmland In addition, herbicides, pesticides, artificial fertilizers, animal manure (poop) are washed into the soil and pollute it Environmental impacts of irrigation are the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the ensuing effects on natural and social conditions at the tail-end and downstream of the irrigation scheme. The impacts stem from the changed hydrological condition owing to the installation and operation of the scheme. An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river and distributes it over the irrigated area. As a hydrological result it is found that: 1. the downstream river discharge is reduced 2. the evaporation in the scheme is increased 3. the groundwater recharge in the scheme is increased 4. the level of the water table rises 5. the drainage flow is increased. Reduced downstream river discharge 1. 2. 3. 4. The reduced downstream river discharge may cause: reduced downstream flooding disappearance of ecologically and economically important wetlands or flood forests reduced availability of industrial, municipal, household, and drinking water reduced fishing opportunities. Fish populations, the main source of protein and overall life support systems for many communities, are also being threatened. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation…. Diunduh 21/4/2012
LIMBAH DOMESTIK • • Tons of domestic waste is dumped every day. Some waste from homes, offices and industries can be recycled or burnt in incinerators There is still a lot of garbage, such as refrigerators and washing machines that are dumped in landfills simply because they cannot be reused in anyway, nor recycled Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill. Landfill gas production results from chemical reactions and microbes acting upon the waste as the putrescible materials begins to break down in the landfill. The rate of production is affected by waste composition and landfill geometry, which in turn influence the bacterial populations within it, chemical make-up, thermal characteristics, entry of moisture and escape of gas. Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane, with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide. Landfill gas also contains varying amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour, hydrogen sulphide, and other contaminants. Most of these other contaminants are known as "non-methane organic compounds" or NMOCs. Some inorganic contaminants (for example mercury) are also known to be present in landfill gas. There are sometimes also contaminants (for example tritium) found in landfill gas. The non-methane organic compounds usually make up less than one percent of landfill gas. In 1991, the US EPA identified ninety-four non-methane organic compounds including toxic chemicals like benzene, toluene, chloroform, vinyl chloride, and carbon tetrachloride. At least forty one of the non-methane organic compounds are halogenated compounds (chemicals containing halogens: typically chlorine, fluorine, or bromine). General options for managing landfill gas are: flaring, boiler (makes heat), internal combustion engine (makes electricity), gas turbine (makes electricity), fuel cell (makes electricity), convert the methane to methyl alcohol, clean it enough to pipe it to other industries or into natural gas lines. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Landfill_gas…. Diunduh 21/4/2012
LIMBAH INDUSTRI Plastics factories, chemical plants, oil refineries, nuclear waste disposal activity, large animal farms, coal-fired power plants, metals production factories and other heavy industry all contribute to land pollution A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids that are moldable. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many are partially natural. Almost invariably, organic polymers mainly comprise plastics. The vast majority of these polymers are based on chains of carbon atoms alone or with oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen as well. The backbone is that part of the chain on the main "path" linking a large number of repeat units together. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang" from the backbone (usually they are "hung" as part of the monomers before linking monomers together to form the polymer chain). The structure of these "side chains" influence the properties of the polymer. Toxicity Due to their insolubility in water and relative chemical inertness, pure plastics generally have low toxicity. Some plastic products contain a variety of additives, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the European Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2 -ethylhexyl phthalate)and other phthalates in some applications. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Plastic …. Diunduh 21/4/2012
KONSEKWENSI PENCEMARAN LAHAN • • • Land pollution exterminates wild life Acid rain kills trees and other plants The vegetation that provides food and shelter is destroyed Land pollution can seriously disrupt the balance of nature, and, in extreme cases, can cause human fatalities Pesticides can damage crops; kill vegetation; and poison birds, animals, and fish. Most pesticides kill or damage life forms other than those intended. For example, pesticides used in an effort to control or destroy undesirable vegetation and insects often destroy birds and small animals. Some life forms develop immunity to pesticides used to destroy them Land pollution is the demolition of Earth's land surfaces often caused by human activities and their misuse of land resources. It occurs when waste is not disposed properly. Health hazard disposal of urban and industrial wastes, exploitation of minerals, and improper use of soil by inadequate agricultural practices are a few factors. Urbanization and industrialization are major causes of land pollution. The Industrial Revolution set a series of events into motion which destroyed natural habitats and polluted the environment, causing diseases in both humans and other species of animals. Penyebab Pencemaran Tanah tercemar oleh banyak cara: 1. When pollutants get mixed with air, this causes acid rain. Acid rain degrades the top soil. 2. Garbage dumping, specially plastics, degrade the soil fertility as they are non biodegradable. 3. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides, when over used pollute the soil and also penetrate into ground water and make it non potable. Sumber: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Land_pollution…. Diunduh 21/4/2012
CARA MENGHENTIKAN PENCEMARAN You can help to reduce global air pollution and climate change by: – Driving a car that gets at least 35 mpg – Walking, biking, and using public transportation – Using CFL bulbs over incandescent bulbs – Buying only energy efficient appliances – Recycling newspaper, aluminum, and others – Planting trees! – Avoid purchasing products that contain CFCs – Supporting much stricter clean air laws and enforcement of international treaties to reduce ozone depletion and slow global warming Pollution mitigation and carbon sequestration by an urban forest (Environmental Pollution 116 (2002) S 195–S 200) Canberra has a population of about 300 000 residents and about 400 000 trees planted in publicly managed areas. These trees have a significant value for the aesthetic and landscape qualities. They also have a significant value in their potential to reduce energy consumption and ameliorate pollution in the city. This example study estimated the value of this amelioration may be between US$20–$67 million (or $66–$223/ resident) between 2008 and 2012. Management of this important resource and the establishment or reestablishment of trees as suburbs grow and change must take these values into account. Manfaat Hutan Kota: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Benefits relating to pollution mitigation Amelioration of urban climate extremes Mitigation of urban heat islands Store and sequester carbon Reduce noise pollution Improve air quality Improve water quality Lower temperatures of parked cars Reduce volatilisation of bitumen
METODE-METODE ANALISIS DAMPAK Metod. E Identifikasi Efek dan Dampak There are three principal methods for identifying environmental effects and impacts (Sorensen and Moss, 1973; Warner and Preston, 1973). Metode Checklists are comprehensive lists of environmental effects and impact indicators designed to stimulate the analyst to think broadly about possible consequences of contemplated actions. This strength can also be a weakness, however, because it may lead the analyst to ignore factors that are not on the lists ('tunnel vision’). Checklists are found in one form or another in nearly all EIA methods. One of the most comprehensive is published in the United States (AEC, 1973). Metode Matriks Matrices typically employ a list of human actions in addition to a list of impact indicators. The two are related in a matrix which can be used to identify (to a limited extent) cause-and-effect relationships. Published guidelines may specify these relationships or may simply list the range of possible actions and characteristics in an open matrix, which is to be completed by the analyst. Metode Diagram Alir Flow diagrams are sometimes used to indentify action-effect- impact relationships. An example is given to show the connection between a particular environmental impact (decrease in growth rate and size of commercial shellfish) and coastal urban development. The flow diagram permits the analyst to visualize the connection between action and impact. The method is best suited to single-project assessments, and is not recommended for large regional actions. In the latter case, the display may sometimes become so extensive that it will be of little practical value, particularly when several action alternatives must be examined. In the study by Sorensen and Moss (1973) of hydrologic impacts of coastal urban development, for example, an initial print-out of 350 pages was produced. Sumber: http: //www. scopenvironment. org/downloadpubs/scope 5/chapter 04. html#t 4. 2 …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
METODE PREDIKSI EFEK Methods for prediction cover a wide spectrum and cannot readily be categorized. All predictions are based on conceptual models of how the universe functions; they range in complexity from those that are totally intuitive to those based on explicit assumptions concerning the nature of environmental processes. Provided that the problem is well formulated and not too complex, scientific methods can be used, to obtain useful predictions, particularly in the biogeophysical disciplines. For example, given the climate (particularly the wind) at a representative site, together with information on time of day, topography and chimney specifications, the patterns of ground level pollution concentrations around a chimney can be estimated (mean values for various averaging times, as well as frequency distributions). Methods for predicting qualitative effects are difficult to find or to validate. In many cases, the prediction consists of indicating merely whethere will be degradation, no change, or enhancement of environmental quality. In other cases, qualitative ranking scales (from 1 to 5, 10 or 100) are used. * This of course can become a weakness of any method. **Moore et al. (1973) have used flow diagrams in a system for reviewing (as contrasted to preparing) impact statements. Because some methods are better or more relevant than others, a listing of recommended methods for solving specific environmental problems would seem to be desirable. However, a compendium of methods, even with numerous footnotes and words of caution, is likely to be a snare for the unwary non-specialist. The environment is never as well behaved as assumed in models, and the assessor is to be discouraged from accepting off-the-shelf formulae. Example of a flow-chart used for impact identification (Sorensen, 1971)
METODE INTERPRETASI DAMPAK Display of Sets of Values of Individual Impact Indicators One way to avoid the problem of synthesis is to display in a checklist or matrix all the impact indicators. For a relatively small set, and provided that some thought is given to a sensible grouping of similar kinds of indicators into sub-sets, a qualitative picture of the aggregate impact may become apparent by the clustering of checkmarks in the diagram. This approach is used in numerous methods. Because the assessor wishes to be all-inclusive, however, the sets are usually much too large for visual comprehension. In the Leopold matrix, for example, 17, 600 pieces of information are displayed. Such an array may confuse the decision-maker, particularly if a separate checklist or matrix is prepared for each alternative. Effort may be wasted if the assessor conscientiously tries to fill in a high proportion of the boxes, and he may be swamped with excessive information if he succeeds Ranking of Alternatives within Impact Categories A second and better method for estimating relative importance is to rank alternatives within groups of impact indicators. This permits the determination of alternatives that have the least adverse, or most beneficial, impact on the greatest number of impact indicators. No formal attempt is made to assign weights to the impact indicators; hence the total impacts of alternatives cannot be compared. Inspection of the table suggests that Plan IV is environmentally most acceptable, although construction costs are the highest. Normalization and Mathematical Weighting In order to compare indicators numerically and to obtain aggregate impacts for each alternative: 1. the impact indicator scales must be in comparable units; 2. an objective method for assigning numerical weights must be selected. Various normalization techniques are available to achieve the first objective. In the Battelle system (Dee et al. , 1972, 1973 a), for example, environmental quality is scaled from 0 (very bad) to 1 (very good) by the use of 'value functions‘. 'Very bad' and 'very good' can be defined in various ways. For a qualitative variable such as scenic beauty which has been ranked from 1 to 5 or from 1 to 10 by the assessor, the scales are simply transformed arithmetically to the range from 0 to 1. For quantitative variables such as water or air quality , 'very bad' could be the maximum permissible concentrations established by law, while 'very good' could be the background concentrations found at great distances from sources.
METODE INTERPRETASI DAMPAK Finally, a method of weighting may be required in order to obtain an aggregate index for comparing alternatives. This is undoubtedly a controversial part of the analysis. The following schemes are listed in increasing order of complexity : count the numbers of negative, insignificant, and positive impacts, and sum in each class; when the impact indicators are in comparable units, assign equal weights; weight according to the number of affected persons; weight according to the relative importance of each impact indicator. Scheme (a) is a special case of (b), both of which are to be discouraged. Scheme (d) may implicitly include (c). In either case, the criteria for weighting should be obtained from the decision-maker or from national goals. The number of weights will often be rather small, as few as two positive and two negative. The use of weights is not perfect but it helps to quantify value judgements. The chief element of dispute is whether the task should be done by specialists or laymen. In the former case, the views may not reflect those of the public directly affected by the action. In the latter case, the non-specialist may not have sufficient factual information for impact assessment. For example, laymen have no basis for comparing the nutritional value of oranges, apples, and pears, although they could be asked quite appropriately to rank the flavours. The system described above also assumes that the numerical values of the individual impact indicators should indeed be aggregated into a single index. This has proved to be a controversial question. On the one hand, 'Because net environmental impact is expressed as a single value, it is easily compared to other alternatives to determine the most environmentally sound approach to development of a particular resource‘. Proponents of this point of view argue that an impact assessment should be in a form suitable for making a decision, and that decision-making is simplified if the major impacts are collapsed to a single number. Too often in the past a task force has prepared an impact assessment containing a catalogue of independent environmental concerns and impacts. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
TIGA METODE PENDUGAAN DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN Three general approaches, selected because they represent a range of options* for impact assessment, are discussed in this section: -Leopold matrix -Overlays -Battelle environmental evaluation system The Battelle Environmental Evaluation System (EES) is a methodology for conducting environmental impact analysis developed at Battelle Columbus Laboratories by an interdisciplinary research team under contract with the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. It is based on a hierarchical assessment of environmental quality indicators. The system is based on a classification consisting of four levels: Level I: Categories, Level II: Components, Level III: Parameters, and Level IV: Measurements. Each category (Level I) is divided into several components, each component (Level II) into several parameters, and each parameter (Level III) into one or more measurements. The EES identifies a total of four (4) categories, eighteen (18) components and seventy-eight (78) parameters. EES assessment of the environmental impacts of water resources development projects is based on commensurate "environmental impact units" (EIU). Two EIU scores are produced, one 'with' and another 'without' the proposed project. The difference between the two scores is a measure of the environmental impact. The scores are based on the magnitude and importance of specific impacts. Sumber: http: //saltonsea. sdsu. edu/the_battelle_ees. html …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
MODEL MATEMATIK UNTUK PENDUGAAN DAMPAK 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Many problems arise in the evaluation of environmental impacts due to new projects; for instance: the determination of the pertinent variables, the choice of methodology to follow, the need to inform the project proponent and regulatory agencies at every step of the evaluation process, and to present the best assessments possible for a variety of alternatives, the necessity to provide understandable information to the public. Usually environmental management encompasses the following steps: perception of needs, problem definition and monitoring program, problem analysis and modelling, simulation to test alternative strategies, Evaluation of alternatives, Selection by decision makers, Implementation and monitoring program. Modelling plays an important role in the decision-making process. However, the results are uncertain because: 1. the conceptual analysis (summation of “mental” evaluations and physical concepts) is incomplete, 2. the mathematical relations used are representative of present knowledge, 3. some uncontrollable or unpredictable even (e. g. , natural catastrophe) can occur. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
MODEL MATEMATIK UNTUK PENDUGAAN DAMPAK Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation Modelling Sumber: …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
MODEL MATEMATIK UNTUK PENDUGAAN DAMPAK Hierarchical Analysis of Impact Assessment to Meet Standards
MODEL MATEMATIK UNTUK PENDUGAAN DAMPAK MODEL DISPERSI UDARA Air dispersion modelling is, by far, the main mathematical tool used by consulting firms in the environmental area. This is understandable because air is, with water, one of the chief dilution and transport media. This is also due to the fact that several mathematical models are available (mainly from U. S. EPA), and are easy to use. Many companies or government agencies in Canada have developed their own models, and information about these models ranges from excellent to very poor. Some calibration and validation have been done, but the results are not always easy to interpret. Different Types of Air Dispersion Models: Short-range (up to about 10 km) to medium-range (up to about 30 km) models are applied close to the source. Long: range models examine the fate of pollutants which travel hundreds or thousands of kilometres, and must generally consider the physical processes of dry and wet pollutant deposition and chemical change. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
MODEL MATEMATIK UNTUK PENDUGAAN DAMPAK SHORT- AND MEDIUM-RANGE MODELS Gaussian Models Air dispersion modelling is largely dominated by the Gaussian model established some twenty years ago (Pasquill-Gifford equations). This model assumes normal distributions of pollutants along the vertical and horizontal, perpendicular to the direction of wind. It permits assessments of continuous or instantaneous release of pollutants, with or without a linear reaction rate or decay. Further developments have consisted of the inclusion of special features which were not part of the original model: 1. pollutant reflection at the ground at the inversion lid, 2. introduction of a variety of different sources (point sources, line sources, area sources, volumic sources, fugitive sources), 3. linear reaction or decay rate, washout by rain, settling of particles, uptake by vegetation or water, 4. topographic effects, 5. lake or sea breeze, 6. temporal and spatial variation of meteorological conditions. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
MODEL MATEMATIK UNTUK PENDUGAAN DAMPAK MODEL STATISTIKA Statistical models of air pollution have been developed primarily to provide a simpler and less data-demanding approach to estimating atmospheric concentrations, either for the purpose of air quality management (e. g. as screening models) or for exposure assessment in epidemiological studies. A range of approaches have been devised, so that statistical models take many different forms. Amongst these, two approaches are of particular utility in exposure assessment: simplified dispersion models, in which the dynamic transfer equations have been reduced to a series of formulae; GIS-based models, where associations between source and receptor are represented by empirically defined equations, derived using regression analysis or similar techniques. Sumber: http: //www. integrated-assessment. eu/guidebook/statistical_air_pollution_models …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
MODEL MATEMATIK UNTUK PENDUGAAN DAMPAK Simplified dispersion models These typically represent an attempt to reduce the complex, dynamic equations inherent in a true dispersion model to a simpler, and generally static, form. Simplification is achieved primarily by ignoring the local, time-varying processes that affect short-term air pollutant concentrations (e. g. associated with variations in meteorology), and modelling instead the average (net) long-term patterns. Models thus comprise a series of formulae or statistical equations, which can be solved either arithmetically (e. g. using spreadsheet functions) or through the use of look-up tables and graphs. Amongst many examples, two of the most widely used in Europe are the Calculation of Air pollution from Road traffic (CAR) model. The original CAR model was developed for use as a screening tool for air quality management in the Netherlands, but a more generic version (CAR-International) was later devised. This model has been widely tested and compared against other, more sophisticated appraoches, and have generally been shown to work well when used within their intended operating conditions (i. e. to assess locally-derived concentrations of traffic-related air pollutants in relatively simple source-receptor environments). They are, however, inevitably limited in that they are not designed to deal with non-transport emissions, and in terms of the sources number of sources and receptors that can easily be analysed, or their ability to model long-range transfers of pollutants. Sumber: http: //www. integrated-assessment. eu/guidebook/statistical_air_pollution_models …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
WELCOME TO THE GAINS MODEL The Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS)Model provides a consistent framework for the analysis of co-benefits reduction strategies from air pollution and greenhouse gas sources. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The model considers emissions of: Carbon dioxide (CO 2) Methane (CH 4) Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) Particulate matter (TSP, PM 10, PM 2. 5 and PM 1) Sulfur dioxide (SO 2) Volatile organic compounds (VOC) Certain versions of the GAINS Model also contain: 1. Ammonia (NH 3) 2. Carbon monoxide (CO) 3. Fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-Gases) Sumber: http: //gains. iiasa. ac. at/gains/IND/index. login? logout=1 …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
MODEL GAINS The GAINS Model consists of several screen options, which display information pertaining to: 1. Economic Activity Pathways activities causing emissions (energy production & consumption, passenger & freight transport, industrial and agricultural activities, solvent use, etc. ) 2. Emission Control Strategies the evolution of emissions and control over a given time horizon 3. Emissions Scenarios emissions are computed for a selected emissions scenario (combination of energy pathway and emissions control strategy), emission factors, results displays, and input values are also available under this action 4. Emission Control Costs displays emission control costs computed for a selected emissions scenario 5. Impacts. Presents ecosystem sensitivities and human health impacts of air pollution 6. Data Management provides an interactive interface where owner-specific data can be modified, updated, exported, and downloaded. Sumber: http: //gains. iiasa. ac. at/gains/IND/index. login? logout=1 …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
MODEL GAINS The GAINS Model simultaneously addresses health and ecosystem impacts of particulate pollution, acidification, eutrophication and tropospheric ozone. Simultaneously, the GAINS Model considers greenhouse gas emission rates and the associated value per ton of CO 2 equivalence. Historic emissions of air pollutants and GHGs are estimated for each country based on information collected by available international emission inventories and on national information supplied by individual countries. The GAINS Model assesses emissions on a medium-term time horizon, emission projections are specified in five year intervals through the year 2030. Options and costs for controlling emissions are represented by several emission reduction technologies. Atmospheric dispersion processes are often modeled exogenously and integrated into the GAINS Model framework. Critical load data and critical level data are often compiled exogenously and incorporated into the GAINS modeling framework. The model can be operated in the 'scenario analysis' mode, i. e. , following the pathways of the emissions from their sources to their impacts. In this case the model provides estimates of regional costs and environmental benefits of alternative emission control strategies. The Model can also operate in the 'optimization mode' which identifies cost-optimal allocations of emission reductions in order to achieve specified deposition levels, concentration targets, or GHG emissions ceilings. The current version of the model can be used for viewing activity levels and emission control strategies, as well as calculating emissions and control costs for those strategies. Sumber: http: //gains. iiasa. ac. at/gains/IND/index. login? logout=1 …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION MODELS Indoor air pollution models provide estimates of indoor concentrations of contaminants derived from external and/or internal sources. Models have mainly been developed for the purpose of building design, but have variously been adopted and adapted for use in epidemiological and health impact studies. A range of models have been applied in this context. The most widely used are dilution (or ventilation) models. These simulate changes in concentrations of contaminants under the influence of atmospheric mixing within a room, and air exchange with the outdoor environment and/or between rooms. Two main approaches to dilution modelling may be identified: mass balance models and computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models. The simplest (mass balance) models apply for a single compartment (i. e. a room where the source, ventilation and the exposed target occur), steady state conditions and complete mixing. Multi-zone models are also available to simulate more complex situations, with several interconnected compartments. The most advanced (CFD) models deal with dynamic conditions, including changing or intermittent release and ventilation, multiple interconnected compartments and displacement ventilation. Indoor air chemistry, sedimentation and absorption (deposition) of pollutants indoors can also be incorporated into the models. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION MODELS Principles Dilution models are mechanistic in that they are based on simplified physical mixing, yet often semi-empirical - i. e. adjusted by empirical correction factors for different air ingress and egress configurations and room characteristics. The models are deterministic: with appropriate input data, the same model applies for any indoor space – usually the home or workplace of an individual. If, however, full ranges and distributions of the input data are available (e. g. for the rooms in a large office building, or homes in a suburb), dilution models can be run for probabilistic simulation of the whole range of indoor exposure concentrations for the target population. For general modeling of exposure to contaminants released into the indoor air, dilution models often lack important terms: 1. Decay, e. g. absorption to room surfaces and furnishings; 2. Removal, e. g. filtration by air cleaning devices; 3. Medium transfer, e. g. sedimentation and absorption from air to dust; and 4. Contact rate/time. Sumber: …. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION MODELS In the simplest formulations, with assumptions of steady state conditions and complete mixing, the indoor concentration (C) is seen as the product of a constant source term (m) (mass/time) and ventilation rate (Q) (volume/time) C = m/Q Incomplete mixing is dealt with by a dimensionless empirical correction factor (0 < c < 1. 0), in which c = 1. 0 would indicate complete mixing: C = m/c۰ Q Displacement ventilation is often used in large rooms. This avoids mixing fresh and used indoor air, and instead gently flows fresh cool air below the used and warmed up room air, pushing it upwards to exhaust vents. In dilution modeling this is treated simply by giving the empirical correction factor a value higher than 1. 0 (c ≥ 1. 0). A source release starting at time t = 0 leads to an indoor concentration (in room of volume V) that asymptotically changes towards the steady state. C(t) = m۰ e^-(V/Q۰ t)^/c۰ Q Stopping the source release at any point of time leads to a similar concentration decay towards zero. Instantaneous releases are incompatible with complex mixing: in reality, mixing is not instantaneous. Indoor concentrations from instantaneous releases can therefore be modeled only from the time required for complete mixing (t~cm~). If the source release and/or ventilation rate can be expressed as mathematical function(s) of time, the most complicated single compartment model thus becomes: C(t) = m(t)۰ e^-(V/Q(t)۰ t)^/c۰ Q(t) The contribution of pollution from outdoor air to indoor exposure can be incorporated simply by adding the outdoor air concentration, corrected if necessary by an indoor/outdoor removal term. More complicated cases of dynamic releases and ventilation, multiple interconnected compartments, incorporation of decay and removal by indoor air chemistry or pollutant deposition on indoor surfaces require increasingly complicated and often numerical dilution models. The figure below summarises the main factors and processes affecting indoor concentrations of particulates. Sumber: http: //www. integrated-assessment. eu/guidebook/indoor_air_pollution_models…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION MODELS Recommended models for indoor air pollution are given in ventilation handbooks and the legally binding ventilation codes. The National Institutes for Standards and Technology (NIST), the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and the Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre (AIVC) are examples of organisations with ventilation modelling resources. Sumber: http: //www. integrated-assessment. eu/guidebook/indoor_air_pollution_models…. . Diunduh 20/4/2012
METODE PENDUGAAN DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN Changes in the practice of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and advances in informationtechnology have greatly expanded the range of tools available to the EIA practitioner. For example, map overlaymethods, originally pioneered by Mc. Harg (1971), have evolved into sophisticated Geographic Information. Systems (GIS). Expert systems, a branch of artificial intelligence, have been developed to help in screening, scoping, developing terms of reference (TOR), and conducting preliminary assessments. These systems usecomprehensive checklists, matrices, and networks in combination with hundreds of impact rules developed by. EIA experts. The global embrace of sustainable development has made the analysis of costs and benefits anintegral part of EIA. This has forced the expansion of factors to be considered in traditional cost benefit analysis. The following chapters describe some of these more specialized approaches and methods that have evolved tomeet the changing needs of EIA: 1) predictive methods 2) environmental risk assessment 3) economic analysis 4) expert systems. The Role of Expert Judgement Most methods and techniques for identifying, measuring, and assessing impacts rely on expert judgement. In fact, many checklists, matrices, and models used in EIA represent decades of experience accumulated bynumerous experts. The experts themselves are heavily involved in all aspects of the assessment — they are usedto help identify the potential for significant impacts, plan data collection and monitoring programs, provide their judgement on the level of significance for specific impacts, and suggest ways of reducing or preventing impacts Sumber: http: //www. scribd. com/SHUVA_Msc%20 IB/d/21248236 -Methods-for-Environmental-Impact-Assessment …. . Diunduh 25/4/2012
PEMILIHAN METODE PENDUGAAN DAMPAK EIA methods range from simple to complex, requiring different kinds of data, different data formats, andvarying levels of expertise and technological sophistication for their interpretation. The analyses they produce havediffering levels of precision and certainty. All of these factors should be considered when selecting a method The EIA practitioner is faced with a vast quantity of raw and usually unorganized information that mustbe collected analyzed in preparation of an EIA report. The best methods are able to: 1. organize a large mass of heterogenous data; 2. allow summarization of data; 3. aggregate the data into smaller sets with least loss of information; and 4. display the raw data and the derived information in a direct and relevant fashion Sumber: http: //www. scribd. com/SHUVA_Msc%20 IB/d/21248236 -Methods-for-Environmental-Impact-Assessment …. . Diunduh 25/4/2012
AD HOC METHOD Ad hoc methods are not really methods as they do not structure the problem so it is more amenable tosystematic analysis. A good example of an ad hoc method is a team of experts assembled for a short time toconduct an EIA. Each expert's conclusions are based on a unique combination of experience, training andintuition. These conclusions are assembled into a report. Sometimes this is the only required or possible approach. In other instances, when more scientific methods are available, it is not sufficient to rely on ad hoc methods. Broad qualitative information about factors useful in the comparative evaluation of alternative development actionsis presented. The information is stated in simple terms that are readily understood by the lay person. No information about the cause-effect relationship between project actions and environmental components isprovided. The actual impacts on specific environmental components likely to be affected by the project or thosethat may require further investigation are not identified. The method merely presents the pertinent informationwithout resorting to any relative weighting of importance. 1. 2. 3. 4. This method is very easy to use, but does have a few drawbacks (Lohani and Kan, 1983): it may not encompass all the relevant impacts; because the criteria used to evaluate impacts are not comparable, the relative weights of variousimpacts cannot be compared; it is inherently inefficient as it requires sizeable effort to identify and assemble an appropriate panel of experts for each assessment; and it provides minimal guidance for impact analysis while suggesting broad areas of possible impacts Sumber: http: //www. scribd. com/SHUVA_Msc%20 IB/d/21248236 -Methods-for-Environmental-Impact-Assessment …. . Diunduh 25/4/2012
CHECKLISTS Checklists are standard lists of the types of impacts associated with a particular type of project. Checklists methods are primarily for organizing information or ensuring that no potential impact is overlooked. They are a more formalized version of ad hoc approaches in that specific areas of impact are listed and instructions are supplied for impact identification and evaluation. Sophisticated checklists include: 1. Scalingchecklists in which the listed impacts are ranked in order of magnitude or severity, and 2. Weighting-scalingchecklists, in which numerous environmental parameters are weighted (using expert judgement), and an index isthen calculated to serve as a measure for comparing project alternatives. Sumber: http: //www. scribd. com/SHUVA_Msc%20 IB/d/21248236 -Methods-for-Environmental-Impact-Assessment …. . Diunduh 25/4/2012
CHECKLISTS There are four general types of checklists: 1. Simple Checklist: a list of environmental parameters with no guidelines on how they are to bemeasured and interpreted. Table 3 -4 illustrates a simple checklist that identifies the potential impacts of the Huasai-Thale Noi Road Project in Thailand. 2. Descriptive Checklist: includes an identification of environmental parameters and guidelines on how tomeasure data on particular parameters. 3. Scaling Checklist: similar to a descriptive checklist, but with additional information on subjectivescaling of the parameters. 4. Scaling Weighting Checklist: similar to a scaling checklist, with additional information for thesubjective evaluation of each parameter with respect to all the other parameters. Sumber: http: //www. scribd. com/SHUVA_Msc%20 IB/d/21248236 -Methods-for-Environmental-Impact-Assessment …. . Diunduh 25/4/2012
CHECKLISTS Varying levels of information and expertise are required to prepare checklists. Simple checklists may require only a generalized knowledge of the environmental parameters likely to be affected, and access to aninformation base. Alternatively, simple checklist methods can be used to summarize the results of an EIA. Scalingweighted checklists are likely to require more expertise to prepare. There are several major reasons for using checklists: 1. they are useful in summarizing information to make it accessible to specialists from other fields, or todecision makers who may have a limited amount of technical knowledge; 2. scaling checklists provide a preliminary level of analysis; and 3. weighting is a mechanism for incorporating information about ecosystem functions. Westman (1985) listed some of the problems with checklists when used as an impact assessment method: 1. they are too general or incomplete; 2. they do not illustrate interactions between effects; 3. the number of categories to be reviewed can be immense, thus distracting from the most significantimpacts; and 4. the identification of effects is qualitative and subjective. Sumber: http: //www. scribd. com/SHUVA_Msc%20 IB/d/21248236 -Methods-for-Environmental-Impact-Assessment …. . Diunduh 25/4/2012
International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. Vol. XXXIII, Part B 7. Amsterdam 2000. The construction of roads and motorways implies a variety of environmental impacts on landscape features. Some of those features are essentially static and impacts on them can be assessed using straight-forward methods. However, impacts on dynamic landscape features will have to be evaluated in other ways, since the impact itself will also be of a dynamic nature. Fundamental to the geomorphological impact of any construction is the way in which hydrology is affected. Changes imposed upon the landscape by road construction and use will affect mechanisms such as infiltration, runoff and erosion. These impacts cannot be assessed directly, due to the complexity of hydrological processes and the way in which the processes are interrelated, both spatially and temporally. Insights into the hydrological response to construction ask for the understanding of underlying hydrological mechanisms. A way to achieve a better understanding of these processes is by modelling them. If spatial and temporal variability are accounted for in such a model, the behaviour of hydrological mechanisms and their interactions could be predicted. Incorporating the presence of infrastructure in such model can lead to a better prediction and assessment of the effects of road construction. The development of a procedure for linking this type of models with a spatial database can generate useful information regarding the assessment of the hydrological response of the environment to alterations imposed by road construction. Such a procedure should be valid for situations where data availability is sub-optimal (which will often be the case within the framework of EIA).
Expected effects on hydrology and related processes due to motorway construction Sumber: …. . Diunduh 25/4/2012
Methodological sequence for the development of an EIA specific hydrological model(the numbers between parenthesis in the text correspond to the boxes in the figure)
Mathematical Modeling of Environmental Noise Impact K. Rawat, V. K. Katiyar, Pratibha Department of Mathematics , Indian Institue of Technology, Roorkee, Indi. A-247667. Indian Journal of Biomechanics: Special Issue (NCBM 7 -8 March 2009) Noise can have negative impact on health. Hearing damage, annoyance, sleep disturbance, high blood pressure, poor cardiovascular health is all linked to community noise. Children, people with existing physical and mental illness and elderly people are most susceptible to community noise. High level of noise from sources such as busy traffic can adversely affect the health of the people living near road highways. It is therefore desirable to model a road traffic noise that predicts well the traffic noise near highways so that the people living near highways who are highly exposed by everyday traffic noise can be protected from noise exposure to some extent. Measurement of noise level ( d. B(A) ) by noise analyzer will be conducted on road segment of Dehradun Haridwar highway for Dehradun city at different locations. The noise level predicted from the developed model is compared with the measured one. t-test is then applied and observed highly significant at 5% level and 95% confidence level. The proposed road traffic noise model can be effectively used as a decision supporting tool for prediction of road traffic noise in Indian conditions. Examining the behavior of various factors affecting road traffic noise, people living near highways can be better prevented from high degree of environmental noise impact. Sumber: http: //www. iitr. ac. in/ISB/uploads/File/ISB/pdf/kamini. pdf …. . Diunduh 25/4/2012
METHODOLOGY Noise impact criteria for different land uses close to highways established by Federal Highway Administration (FHA) is given as: Land Use Ld. B(A) Residential 65 d. B(A) Commercial 70 d. B(A) Above this level a statistically significant increase in blood pressure level of the people living near highways since long and continuously exposed by traffic noise is observed. Since traffic characteristics and type of vehicle in India differ from those in Western countries, a new model including traffic flow (vehicle/hour), traffic speed (Km/hour), traffic composition in terms of heavy vehicle (%) were investigated. For each type of vehicle, regression analysis of noise level (d. B A) on speed was carried out based on Logarithmic relationship i. e. L = a log( speed ) + b ; Where a andb are constants and there values differ for each type of vehicle. Pengukuran Bising Lalulintas The noise level was measured at different hours (8 am-9: 30 am; 11 am-12: 30 am; 2 pm- 3: 30 pm; 5 pm-6: 30 pm), when traffic flow was mild, average and heavy at 20 different locations of Dehradun-Haridwar highway by using noise analyzer (sound level meter). Readings of noise level in d. B(A) at different locations are given in. The sound level meter was set back at the edge of the road on pedestrian side walk at a height of 1. 2 meter above the ground surface. Traffic flow in terms of vehicle/hour, average traffic speed in terms of Km. /hour and traffic composition in terms of percentage of heavy vehicle at different locations are given in. Mathematical Modeling of Environmental Noise Impact K. Rawat, V. K. Katiyar, Pratibha Department of Mathematics , Indian Institue of Technology, Roorkee, Indi. A-247667. Indian Journal of Biomechanics: Special Issue (NCBM 7 -8 March 2009)
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND MODEL DEVELOPMENT A traffic noise model was then developed by applying the basic noise level from this study. The equation being used in practice for predicting the basic traffic noise is the CRTN model (Lam and Tam 1998). The main equation for predicting the noise level is given by L = 10 log Q + 33 log( V + 40 + 500 / V ) + 10 log( 1 + 5 P / V ) - 26. 6 (1) Where: Q = Traffic flow; P = Percentage of heavy vehicle; V = Average speed of vehicles. For making sensitivity analysis the values of each factor was changed in order to compute, while other factors were kept fixed. Using the Linear Regression Model, the accuracy of estimated Sound Pressure Level L d. B(A) to the observed value (directly collected from the surveys) is examined. Figure 1 shows the result of regression analysis of the noise level L d. B(A). The coefficient of determination (R 2 ) of the 450 line is 0. 8733. A simple way of modifying prediction procedure is only to recalculate the coefficient of equation and the constant term using the survey data. Regression model of observed L d. B(A)with the measured L d. B(A) is given as follows: By substituting this equation into equation (1), the general form of revised equation is: L =10. 2 log. Q + 33. 66 log (V + 40 + 500/V ) +10. 2 log (1+ 5 P/V) - 27. 302 (3) Mathematical Modeling of Environmental Noise Impact K. Rawat, V. K. Katiyar, Pratibha Department of Mathematics , Indian Institue of Technology, Roorkee, Indi. A-247667. Indian Journal of Biomechanics: Special Issue (NCBM 7 -8 March 2009)
Figure 1. Measured L d. B(A) against predicted L d. B(A) for equation (1). Figure 2: Measured L d. B(A) against predicted L d. B(A) for equation (3). Mathematical Modeling of Environmental Noise Impact K. Rawat, V. K. Katiyar, Pratibha Department of Mathematics , Indian Institue of Technology, Roorkee, Indi. A-247667. Indian Journal of Biomechanics: Special Issue (NCBM 7 -8 March 2009)
Summary logic used to place assessment units (AUs) into each of the five categories in the 2002 Integrated Report Sumber: http: //water. epa. gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/cwa/tmdl/2002 wqma. cfm…. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
Efforts for Promoting Sound Hydrological Cycles In the basin of River Ebi, sensitivity analysis was conducted for the cases when some measures were implemented, using a hydrological cycle model. As the measures, introduction and maintenance of parks and green areas, regulating reservoirs/ storage of rainwater/ percolation facilities and so on were considered. Figures indicated in the diagram below are for the cases when the measures were and were not implemented (parenthesized), assuming precipitation to be 100. By implementing these measures, surface runoff decreases, and percolation and groundwater runoff increase. At the same time, by making use of treated waste water, the amount of river flow at normal times increases and water quality is improved. Sumber: http: //www. mlit. go. jp/tochimizushigen/mizsei/water_resources/contents/responding_properly. html…. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
Biomass recovery increases, Air / water polution deacreases What if there was a way to collect human and animal waste in such a way to decrease air pollution, decrease water pollution, while creating a sustainable source of energy? I'm in! And the technology is available for large scale agriculture. The challenge is if it can be adapted to a much smaller scale. Sumber: http: //www. openideo. com/open/how-can-we-improve-sanitation-and-better-manage-human-waste-in-low-income-urbancommunities/inspiration/biomass-recovery-increases-air-water-polution-deacreases/…. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
Nitrogen Pollution in Buzzards Bay Sumber: …http: //www. buzzardsbay. org/nitrogen-pollution. htm. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
What are the causes of water pollution? How can we provide enough clean water? Imagine a river that is the only source of water for a series of farming villages along its banks. The people in the first village might be very careful and always get their drinking water from above the village, do all their washing a little further down stream, and let their animals drink in the river as it leaves their village. By being very careful and aware of basic hygiene they can try to stay healthy. They can do very little to protect themselves from dead animals decaying in the river further upstream, or from germs and parasites introduced to the water by wild animals. As the river leaves their village the water will have been polluted by washed bodies, food scraps from washed pots and pans, and body waste from the farm animals and village dwellers. The people in the next village will have to drink this polluted water, and will suffer from the diseases that accompany dirty water. Sumber: http: //ih-igcse-geography. wikispaces. com/1. 8+Clean+Water…. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
Earthquakes & Sewers December 12, 2011 By phlush The diagram below from an illustrated study from Japan shows the immediate and longer term impact on sanitation when an earthquake damages water and sewer systems, causes building collapse and disrupts traffic. Sumber: http: //www. phlush. org/emergencysan/earthquakes-sewers/…. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
PATHWAY OF EFFECTS DIAGRAM FOR VEGETATION CLEARING Sumber: http: //www. dfo-mpo. gc. ca/habitat/role/1415/14155/risk-risque/page 03 -eng. asp …. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
EFEK VEGETASI Feedbacks that may cause a vegetationdominated state and a turbid state to be alternative equilibria. The qualitative effect of each route in the diagram can be computed by multiplying the signs along the way. This shows that both the vegetated and the turbid state are selfreinforcing (from Scheffer et al. 1993). In order to understand how nutrient loading and lake depth may affect the ecosystem, we need to turn to models rather than qualitative reasoning. Although relatively complex mathematical models are needed to capture the dominant mechanisms that are involved, a very simple graphical approach suffices to illustrate the main point (Scheffer 1990, Scheffer et al. 1993). The graph is based on three assumptions: (1) turbidity increases with the nutrient level; (2) vegetation reduces turbidity; and (3) vegetation disappears when a critical turbidity is exceeded. Sumber: http: //www. ecologyandsociety. org/vol 3/iss 2/art 11/…. . Diunduh 27/4/2012
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