Как написать статью на английском языке и избежать типичных ошибок Шарапкова Анастасия Андреевна warapkova@mail. ru
Текст- артефарт науки • • Наука - это фронтир знаний, фронтир человеческого любопытства, волна первооткрывателей, первопроходцы. То, что не было зафиксировано письменно, «остается беззвучным и немым» , прошедшим без истории [Гегель, 1993: 479].
I. A good paper in English • A "good paper", needs to "present a new idea in an easy to understand way". ( M. Chang) • Простая ≠ утверждающая всем известные истины, повторяющая уже сделанное ранее • Понятная ≠ элементарная по содержанию, избегающая сложных вопросов или спорных моментов.
A good paper in English Научная статья жанр научной прозы являет собой четкое, последовательное и достаточное изложение необходимой информации в утвержденной и сформированной последовательности информационных блоков.
• It is a well-known commonality that written communications of all sorts have a propensity to descend quite deeply into a kind of approach imposed very often unwittingly by the author that absolutely ensures the fact that the desired message is not, for the most part, uncomplicated, a stylistic habit that, unless regarded with utmost concern and consideration – an attentiveness boasted by merely a few writers – can turn into an abstraction to fulsome understanding. (Koerber, 2015)
A good paper in English • Хорошая статья предполагает ответственное отношение автора к своему читателю, иными словами, хорошая статья это результат работы автора, который сделал все возможное для того, чтобы облегчить ее понимание потенциальному читателю. • The paper has to be proofread by many different people, rewritten, and edited many, many times. Most papers are difficult to understand because they are just written, not edited.
I. • • A bad paper in English - это джунгли: «Повторяю еще раз: очень важна ЯСНОСТЬ ИЗЛОЖЕНИЯ. Редактор не должен ПРОРУБАТЬСЯ сквозь текст, как через амазонские джунгли. Надо писать – ЯСНО, ОБЪЕКТИВНО, ТОЧНО, КРАТКО!» (I. van S. Из Elsevier) - это лед: «Энергия читателя конечна, и пока он пробирается сквозь лингвистическое воплощение вашей идеи и пытается понять – а где здесь глагол, а где здесь придаточное, а к чему это относится, его энергия заканчивается и содержание начинает волновать в меньшей степени» - это одежда не по размеру, Keep working until your outline fits your idea like a glove. “bad style is like high heels for fencing- horrid and useless” - это мутная вода : «It is extremely important, as a well-ordered sentence makes meaning clear and concise, whereas a badly ordered sentence makes the reader (and marker) work very hard to understand the meaning like to see the sun through the clouded waters» •
I. • • • A good paper in English - clear - concise - correct - well-written - direct -specific, not too general - well-supported - well-formatted - strong
I. Почему не стоит переводить статью? – интерференция языков • “ this problem is paid a lot of attention” “this issue/ problem is widely recognized as important/ urgent/ vital/ crucial…” The problem like this causes a number of questions”. • “The problem like this raises a number of questions”. • there is enough evidence • “There is solid/sufficient evidence” • “This theory has a number of conclusions” • “This theory has a number of profound and farreaching implications” • “The structure realizes a number of functions” • “This structure fulfills a number of functions. This structure is multifunctional”
I. Почему не стоит переводить статью? – интерференция языков These isolated particles are widely used as a valuable model system for PSII RCs since their first preparation in 1987. • A prime, a reliable model • The amount of these complexes peaked as early as at 20 -40 s (Figure 2 B), indicating a high rate of ribosomal scanning through the preceded 31 -nt leader which is in accordance with the previously estimated speed of scanning ribosomes. • The amount of these complexes peaked as early as at 20 -40 s (Figure 2 B), indicating a high rate of ribosomal scanning through the preceded 31 -nt leader This correlates with the previously estimated speed of scanning ribosomes. • Reading is not only perceptual but also motor process. During reading at each moment of time the recognition of the incoming visual information is carried out as well as eye movements are prepared and executed. • Reading is both perceptual and motor process because the recognition of the incoming visual information is carried out continuously and accounts for how and when eye movements are prepared and executed. • All the p. H measurements were performed within 2– 7 days after sample collection, during which time the samples were stored at 5 -8°C. • (in the course of this period during which) •
Полностью оценить важность этого принципа можно только после появления дополнительных данных • – to evaluate this principle would be possible after… • Assessing the significance of this principle would be possible after • To appreciate the full significance of this principle would be possible after • The full significance of this principle could be appreciated after…
• Мы можем получить то же самое заключение другим способом в случае, когда. . . We can reach the same conclusion in another way for the case of. . . ( in case of)
Что можно сделать? • проверка по корпусам текстов. • British National Corpus( BNC) • The Corpus of contemporary American English (COCA) • PDF версии журналов как корпус данных. • Прочитать через несколько дней, желательно вслух + дать почитать другу или друзьям.
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей 1) Связанныe с общей логикой повествования и английского научного дискурса. 2) Связанные с синтаксисом 3) Связанные с грамматикой 4) На стыке грамматики и лексики 5) Лексические проблемы
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 1)
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 1)
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 1) построение абзаца • Evolutionary biology today tries to explain a natural world that appears remarkably different from the nature of the past century. It is a dynamic world, where sym biosis and phenotypic plasticity are the rules, not the exceptions. High throughput sequencing has uncov ered a world of complex interactions between developing organisms and the biotic and abiotic components of their environments. This newfound awareness of the depend ency of phenotypes on other species and environmen tal conditions presents additional layers of complexity for evolutionary theory and raises many questions that are being addressed by new research programmes. The field of ecological evolutionary developmental biology (Eco Evo Devo) attempts to study and model this new view of nature by organizing concepts such as developmental symbiosis and developmental plasticity into evolutionary theory.
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 1) построение абзаца • синонимы Evolutionary biology - The field of ecological evolutionary developmental biology (Eco- Evo-Devo) Tries - attempts a natural world that appears remarkably different - new view of nature • использование указательных местоимений c существительными These extensive experimental and computational analyses allowed us to assign • замена части речи одного слова (легкскограмматические синонимы) To attempt – attempt We aimed - our aim • замена активного залога пассивным There are many ways in which the term “individual” is used in biology. As such, all classical conceptions of individuality are called into question by evidence of all-pervading symbiosis.
• • • Aim Actions taken during a smog aim to prevent pollution levels from rising further. the aim of the paper. • • Approach smth. from __perspective. We approach this problem from a new perspective. The approach is. This approach leads directly to various methods for generating further exact solutions. • • • To emphasize smth. This may serve to emphasise the effects of X-rays. to lay/ put/ place emphasis on. put emphasis on a radical definition of' children's rights‘… Important- importance Use- use( v)- user- usefull- usefulness- misuse- useless- usable- usefully Result- result (v) – resulting- resultant Face- to face Study- to study • • •
II. Есть списки наиболее употребляемых слов и их соответствий BNC
II. • Основные проблемы при написании статей – 1) построение абзаца Language is one of the most complex forms of higher mental functions in humans. The implementation of different speech types (spoken, written) provided by a number of complex physiological and cognitive mechanisms that are the subject of physiologists, psychologists and psycholinguists (Luria, 1975; Leontiev, 1997; Baars, 2007). The founder of modern linguistics N. Chomsky (1962, 1972) lay down theoretical foundations for the study of verbal cognitive difficulties recurring in communication between people. A special case of this general issue is the problem of the origin and disambiguation of syntactic ambiguity in the language. • Language and linguistic activity taken in the whole variety of its types (speech, writing, listening and reading) and being one of the most complex forms of higher cognitive functions is provided by a set of physiological and cognitive mechanisms. Consequently, it is the subject of several disciplines including physiology, psychology and psycholinguists (Luria, 1975; Leontiev, 1997; Baars, 2007) and the integrated approach is fruitful for studying the ambiguities and complexities arising in communication. The theoretical foundations for studying cognitive difficulties in communication accounting for their linguistic form (or verbal expression) were laid by N. Chomsky. A special type of this wider issue is the problem of the origin and ways of disambiguating the syntactic ambiguity in language.
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2) синтаксические 1)Предложения с неясной структурой • Specific signs of diencephalic structure dysfunction to have been in the most cases appeared in the form of nonspindled, pointed alpha rhythm with the frequency similar to theta rhythm and in the form of wrong distribution of alpha activity were detected in the free divers’ electroencephalogram.
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2) синтаксические • 2) Слишком длинное предложение Charge separation in the reaction center (RC) of photosystem II (PSII) occurs via picosecond formation of the radical pair P 680+Pheo. D 1 , where P 680 is a dimer of two chlorophyll a (Chl) molecules, and Pheo. D 1 is the pheophytin acceptor molecule located at the photochemically active cofactor branch bound to the D 1 polypeptide (see for a review Ref. [1]). It is now quite well accepted that charge separation in PSII reaction centers takes place ( occurs) in a few picoseconds, leading to the formation of the radical pair. . . with P 680 being
• Using automatic translation software (e. g. Google Translate, Babel fish, and Systran) can considerably ease the work of researchers when they need to translate documents thus saving them money (for example the fee they might have otherwise had to pay to a professional translator) and increasing the amount of time they have to spend in the laboratory rather than at the computer. • Using automatic translation software (e. g. Google Translate, Babel fi sh, and Systran) can considerably ease the work of researchers when they need to translate documents. This can save them money, for example the fee they might have otherwise had to pay to a professional translator. It can also increase the amount of time they have to spend in the laboratory rather than at the PC.
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2) синтаксические 3) Лишнее придаточное The amount of these complexes peaked as early as at 20 -40 s (Figure 2 B), indicating a high rate of ribosomal scanning through the preceded 31 -nt leader which is in This accordance with the previously correlates estimated speed of scanning ribosomes.
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2) синтаксические • 4) Предложение, начинающееся с наречных конструкций или с придаточных предложений. • In the biochemically isolated PSII RC (D 1/D 2/cyt b 559 RC complex [2]) in which forward electron transfer from Pheo. D 1 is blocked due to the absence of the plastoquinone acceptors, P 680+Pheo. D 1 - recombines on the nanosecond time scale [3 -7] to form the lowest excited triplet state of chlorophyll via the radical pair mechanism [5, 8].
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2) синтаксические
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2) синтаксические
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2) синтаксические • • • It is important to note, that each m. RNA molecule in our system was able to acquire only a single 43 S complex onto its initiation region, since the distances between the AUG codons were too short to accommodate more than one ribosome. Notably, each particular m. RNA molecule in our system was able to acquire only a single 43 S complex onto its initiation region, since the distances between the AUG codons were too short to accommodate more than one ribosome. It was found that in the data available subjects from developing countries were smaller and had lower metabolic rates as it was expected. The data available from developing countries were found to be unpredictably smaller and had lower metabolic rates. It is assumed that sliding presupposes the movement of the 43 S complex along the m. RNA to a 5’ distal AUG codon after a pronounced pause at the 5’ proximal AUG. Sliding presupposes the movement of the 43 S complex along the m. RNA to a 5’ distal AUG codon after a pronounced pause at the 5’ proximal AUG.
II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2) синтаксические • 6) короткие монотонные предложения • Gut microbiota is important for Homan health. Genomic variation needs to be studied in order to get information about how it could be used in treating some diseases. • Given the importance of the gut microbiota in human health, an understanding of genomic variation in gut microbial populations will probably trigger applications towards human well-being and disease. •
• Fish was divided into 2 groups by qualitative features at short notice. Such characters of coloration and morphology as caudal fin shape, spots size and color tone of the body sides were examined. The first group possesses light sides (brown, gray or pink) with large bright spots. Edges of the spots are diffuse and irregular. Caudal fin is deep forked. Head is conical. The second group is characterized by dark coloration with purple or olive tide on the sides. Spots are smaller and more frequent with distinct edges. Caudal fin is slightly clipped. Head is elongated. It was easy to determine the specimens in 95% of the cases. Therefore, all further analyses were conducted separately for the representatives of the groups excluding controversial specimens. • Fish was carefully divided into 2 groups based on several peculiarities at short notice. The set of features comprised: coloration(, morphology, caudal fin shape, spots size and color tone of the body sides). The first group was characterized by light sides (brown, gray or pink) with large bright spots, while the second one by dark coloration with purple or olive tide on the sides. Spots were smaller and more frequent with distinct edges in the second group, whereas the first group had the diffuse and irregular edges of the spots, deep forked caudal fin and conical head, the second group was characterized by slightly clipped caudal fin and elongated head. It was easy to determine the specimens in 95% of the cases. Therefore, all further analyses were conducted separately for the representatives of the groups excluding controversial specimens.
• • • In this article I will briefly emphasise the enormity of the energy/carbon dioxide problem that we face within the coming decades and discuss the contributions that could be made by fuels derived directly from photosynthesis (biofuels) and from developing new technologies based on the successful principles of photosynthesis. I will particularly emphasise the possibility of exploiting the vast amounts of solar energy available to split water to produce dioxygen and the reducing equivalents required to generate fuels such as hydrogen gas, alcohols and methane. ( James Barber) Мы можем заметить, что предложения достаточно длинные, сложные, но понятные. Charrs of the genus Salvelinus (Salmonidae, Osteichthyes), inhabiting the Pacific Beringia region, are divided into two closely related complex taxa: S. malma(Dolly Varden) and S. alpinus (Arctic Charr), or S. taranetzisensulato (Taranets. Charr) (Brunner et al. , 2001; Oleinik, Skurikhina&Brykov, 2007; Osinov& Pavlov, 1998; Taylor et al. , 2008). Sympatric habitations of charrs in the western Alaska are limited and ( thus the )phylogeny of the taxa was established (Mc. Phail, 1961; Behnke, 1980; Mc. Cart, 1980; Reist, Johnson & Carmichael, 1997; Taylor et al. , 2008), as well as ( while)the north-eastern Asia charr localizations and phylogenetic relationships were not studied enough (Salmenkova&Omelchenko, 2013).
III. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 3) грамматические • 1) ошибки In the further text considered only are sequenced samples. It seems that any fundamental role in triggering sexual behaviour is unlikely. • In addition, it do not retain the oxygen-evolving complex. • Kaolinite is the most studied two-layered clay mineral and the most simple ( the simplest) for interpretation in the light of the complex triple interaction. • We assumed that the first group of charrs should be associated with lacustrine Arctic Charr (Salvelinustaranetzi) and the second group – with common Dolly Varden (Salvelinusmalma), which were fed ( feed) in the lakes and spawned ( spawn) in the tributaries.
III. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 3) грамматические 2) Соотношение активного и пассивного залога 3) Исчисляемые и неисчисляемые существительные Research, evidence 4) Множественное число
• Of these papers, less than a half deals / deal with this issue. • 2. A number of authors has / have claimed that x = y. • 3. The number of publications per year is / are reported in Table 3. • 4. The majority of articles only covers / cover marginal issues. • 5. None of the instruments work / works. • 6. Both clinical and neuropathological evidence shows / show that these symptoms are…
• Antenna может быть и antennas и Antennae в зависимости от того, в какой журнал вы подаете! • data сейчас может быть и множественным – от datum и собирательным как evidence
That - which That introduces a restrictive clause Which introduces a nonrestrictive clause Figure 6 shows the low population density and the extent of areas that are effectively uninhabited, in response to overwhelming environmental and topographical difficulties. The arcuate island chain of the Outer Hebrides is underlain by rocks, which are amongst the oldest in Britain, principally comprising Lewisian gneisses with some granites and younger sedimentary rocks.
• The police are searching for a man with one eye called Smith. • What’s his other eye called? • If the baby will not drink its milk, boil it.
IV. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 3)лексикограмматические • Adoptive cell transfer ( ACT) imunotherapy is based on the ex vivo selection of tumourreactive lymphocytes, and their activation and numerical expression before reinfusion to the autologous tumour-bearing host • These findings imply that the rates of ascorbate radical production and its recycling via dehydroascorbate reductase to replenish the ascorbate pool are equivalent at the lower irradiance, but not equivalent at higher irradiance with the rate of ascorbate radical production exceeding its recycling back to ascorbate.
IV. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 3)лексикограмматические Deregulation of physiologic micro. RNA (mi. R) activity has been shown to play an important role in tumor initiation and progression, inducing gilomagnesis. Therefore, molecular species that can regulate mi. R activity on their target RNAs without affecting the expression of relevant mature mi. Rs may play equally relevant roles in cancer.
• A special case of this general issue is the problem of the origin and disambiguation of syntactic ambiguity in the language. • However the parameters of saccades and fixations indirectly represent the brain language processes because they are closely related with cognitive functions (attention, memory, letter pattern recognition, decision making) providing the recognition and comprehension of written language (Clifton et al. , 2007). • The process of recognition of letters that comprise morphemes and words occurs during the fixations.
IV. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 4)лексические 1) Ложные друзья переводчика The structure realizes a number of functions 2) Нарушение сочетаемости
• These isolated particles are widely used as a valuable model system for PSII RCs since their first preparation in 1987 [8]. • In both cases, the complex accumulation kinetics were much faster than those at the ΔE 012 m. RNA, but a clear delay in 48 S formation on the second AUG was observed at the ΔE 12 m. RNA as compared to ΔE 2 m. RNA • Standing aside from the hot discussions of whether clay minerals were or were not among the primary entombing sediments in Lagerstätten and Burgess Shale Type Lagerstätten especially (Powell, 2003; Butterfield, 2007; Page et al. , 2008), we note that clays were most likely present in ancient bottom sediments.
• Artemia were well visible over 14 months and longer (up to two years). • The mechanism that guided for centuries the formation of exceptionally preserved fossils with soft tissue variously displayed is the paramount challenge to paleontological science. • The mechanism that guided the formation of exceptionally preserved fossils with variously displayed soft tissue is the challenge of paramount importance for paleontology/ a crucial issue/ a primary concern for paleontological science.
Как проверять сочетаемость? • пользоваться словарями издательств Longman, Mc. Millan, Oxford+ словарями сочетаемости. . (Oxford Collocations Dictionary for students of English).
1. Новое свойство возникает, когда мы рассматриваем. . . 2. Выясняется одно замечательное свойство 3. Главной характерной чертой предыдущего примера является. . . 4. Относительно соотношения (12) заметим, что его интересным свойством является. . . — 5. Здесь проявляются две интересные особенности. 6. Основное (= существенное) требование, предъявляемое к. . . состоит в том, чтобы. . . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A new feature emerges when we consider. . . A remarkable feature emerges: . . . A central feature of the previous example is. . . The interesting feature to notice about (12) is that. . . Two notable features are revealed here. The essential feature required of. . . is that. . .
Проблемные предлоги • In the opposite to Dolly Varden widespread dominance along the Pacific Coast of Asia, the Taranets Charr anadromous and resident forms are distributed from Chukotka Peninsula to the Dergavin’s Bay As opposite • По сравнению с результатами лаборатории в Ливерпуле, наши данные показывают взаимозависимость между фактором a и фактором b. • By contrast with / to _______ или вообще in contract?
• In contrast with the results of Saxon et al our indirect immunofluorescence assay results showed greater sensitivity and a similar specificity compared with the ELISA test. • In contrast with type II focus, the type I ranged from 0. 017 to 0. 033. • The smaller reduction in the Medical Research Council's trial may be accounted for by the high rate of drop outs and deviations from the protocol. In contrast to these reductions in the rate of stroke, the effect on heart attacks was much less: only in the systolic hypertension in the elderly programme did it achieve significance.
«Подчеркнем отличие в определениях проф. М и проф. Б» • Let us underline the difference in definitions • Let us draw the readers attention to/ focus on/ the difference / contrast in definitions • Let us contrast the definitions of Prof. M and Prof. B. • compare to vs. compare with. • compare something/somebody with something/somebody • The police compared the suspect's fingerprints with those found at the crime scene. • compare something/somebody to something/somebody • Davies' style of writing has been compared to Dickens'. • Result in - result from и многие другие. .
These model subfossils exhibit (reveal) the features that are typical to (of/for) some Lagerstätten fossils preserved in the finegrained sediments.
• In the given paper are not going to discuss the specifics of the taphonomic pathways of Lagerstätten, which are extremely variable (Butterfield, 1994, 1995, 2003, Cai et al. , 2012), but instead we will discuss one important question, namely why does decay of dead carcasses stop or delay allowing the fossilization to start before the complete degradation of a body. In the present paper we focus on the reasons why dead carcasses stop decaying and what factors govern the delayed decay allowing the fossilization to start before the complete degradation of a body.
Необходимость синонимичных оборотов contrast Judge Evaluate balance contrast Equal Match Compete equal rival parallel liken relate associate Link equate • …the basic structural arrangement and interactions of the tripletbearing Chl are comparable for the two PSII preparations. From comparison of the triplet-minussinglet FTIR difference spectrum with the published FTIR difference spectra for photooxidation of P 680, it is concluded that…
• This similarity means that the basic structural arrangement and interactions of the triplet-bearing Chl with its surrounding cofactors could not vary significantly for two types of PSII preparations. We compared the obtained FTIR spectrum with the reported data on FTIR difference spectra for P 680 photooxidation that allowed us to uncover the significant difference between triplet-bearing Chl molecules in PS 2 core complexes and the chlorophylls constituting P 680.
«Аналогично» (важно знать всю систему однокоренных слов + синонимы ) • Аналогично, было бы желательно, чтобы • Совершенно аналогично этому результату мы могли бы доказать • Это выражение совершенно аналогично тому, что было получено для – • Это практически аналогично- • Similarly, it would be desirable to … • …in complete analogy with this result we may prove… • It is possible to prove the following by the analogy with previous result • This expression is analogous to that which has been obtained for… • it is closely analogous to…
Знание синонимов • • Assess • • Evaluate • • Estimate Оценивать appraise, estimate, evaluate, appreciate, judge не отмечены в словаре: calculate, consider, assess Более нейтральное и употребительное Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children. – Шкала оценки депрессивности у школьников. Более формальное, менее употребительное, имеет оттенок оценки качества It's impossible to evaluate these results without knowing more about the research methods employed. – Невозможно оценить эти результаты, не зная больше о методах, которыми их получили. Нейтральное, оценивать, исчислять F’s hypothesis is based on a careful estimation of variations within ….
assess • IMPACT OBJECTIVES SIGNIFICANCE ASPECTS ACTIVITY IMPORTANCE QUALITY RISK DEGREE VALIDITY AMOUNT ASSESSMENT STRENGTH CHANGES INFLUENCE DAMAGES COST evaluate PRACTICE APPROACH RESEARCH EFFECTIVENESS EFFICACY INFORMATION STUDIES EFFECTS ABILITY POTENTIAL EFFECTS PROGRESS EFFECT ORDER IMPACT Estimate NUMBER PROPORTION PREVALENCE VALUE DISEASE ACTIVITY DOSE EQUIVALENCE NUMBERS OF COST DEGREE LEVEL MAGNITUDE POTENTIAL RATE DOMINANCE PROPORTIONS FIGURES FOR
Article Paper Essay Book Study Is about Is concerned with Is devoted to deals with aims ( N) ( to V) represents will be( is) centred on raises will examine introduces provides ( N) ( the reader with N) considers ( N) emphasizes (N) The analysis ( comparative analysis) Issues ( following issues) A wide range of problems Anything you are going to talk about ; -) Questions( a number of questions) Relations between The discussion
Analyze Collect Provide Interpret Include Obtain Record Get Derive Deduce Data Body of data/evidence Abundant data Basic data Available data Empirical data Reliable data Comparative data Experimental data Synonyms Information Facts Statistics Findings Results Evidence Case ( a strong case can be made for the hypothesis that…)
Для каждой части статьи, для каждого типа информации существуют свои set phrases! • Many hypotheses regarding something appear to be ill-defined / unfounded / not well grounded /unsupported / questionable / disputable / debatable • So, researchers try to establish the facts, that they could draw from their material or experimental data. They hope that the facts will bear out or support their hypothesis, they would show the strong points of your research. The facts could be reliable, littleknown, relevant and even undeniable.
• How to start an abstract? We reviewed the published data on study of_________ This paper gives an overview of____ This paper gives a review of____ This paper rigorously establishes______ This paper attempts to explain why____ This paper considers ____ This paper examines how______ This paper presents ______ This paper identifies _____ This paper summarizes_____ The paper reviews the problem of ___ This paper develops, measures, and tests___ This paper explores___
New information is light • The present experimental data may shed new light on the formation of planets new light on • Views on depression have changed in the light of recent studies on the brain light of • Historians use personal diaries to illuminate their historical facts. • Animal models could be used to elucidate basic principles of the developmental origins of adult diseases. • Prof. Barber highlighted the need for a new highlighted approach. • Prof. Rogers brought the issue of photosynthesis to the limelight of to the limelight contemporary science.
Theories are buildings • Is that the foundation for your theory? The theory needs more support. • The argument is shaky. We need some more facts or the argument will fall apart. • We need to construct strong argument for that. • I haven't figured out yet what the form of the argument will be. Here are some more facts to shore up theory. • We need to buttress theory with solid arguments. • The theory will stand on the strength of that argument. The argument collapsed. • They exploded his latest theory. • So far we have put together only the framework of theory
Пример хорошей аннотации. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT), or the transfer of genes between species, has been recognized recently as more pervasive than previously suspected. Here, we report evidence for an unprecedented degree of HGT into an animal genome, based on a draft genome of a tardigrade, Hypsibius dujardini. Tardigrades are microscopic eight legged animals that are famous for their ability to survive extreme conditions. Genome sequencing, direct confirmation of physical linkage, and phylogenetic analysis revealed that a large fraction of the H. dujardini genome is derived from diverse bacteria as well as plants, fungi, and Archaea. We estimate that approximately one sixth of tardigrade genes entered by HGT, nearly double the fraction found in the most extreme cases of HGT into animals known to date. Foreign genes have supplemented, expanded, and even replaced some metazoan gene families within the tardigrade genome. Our results demonstrate that an unexpectedly large fraction of an animal genome can be derived from foreign sources. We speculate that animals that can survive extremes may be particularly prone to acquiring foreign genes. 1. Введение в тему 2. Наша тема проблема и метод 3. Гипотеза 4. Наши результаты Актуальность
Создание образа контраста, противоречия • • • • More pervasive than previously expected a remarkable diversity offer an unrivalled perspective on considerable uncertainty appears remarkably different from This newfound awareness some rather surprising results over time report an unexpected function for melatonin signaling Whereas large-scale efforts have rapidly advanced the understanding and practical impact of human genomic variation, the practical impact of variation is largely unexplored in the human microbiome. might have a unique metagenomic genotype A triumph of modern genetics has been the identification Reactions involving H 2, N 2, CO 2 and CH 4 are likely to have been central to the origin of life provides the foundation for future studies of this organism The duplication of entire genomes has long been recognized as having great potential for evolutionary novelties, but the mechanisms underlying their resolution through gene loss are poorly understood. Ciliates are unique among unicellular organisms
Что делать? • Use each and every opportunity to learn the English language • Emulate good writing • Build a personal dictionary of “good phrases” from the literature you read • Follow the rule of the three C s: clear, concise and correct • Check your writing many times before you give it to the reviewers
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Пущино 2016 Английский.pptx