Jonathan R White www cengage com cj white Chapter 9

Jonathan R. White www. cengage. com/cj/white Chapter 9: Background to the Middle East Rosemary Arway Hodges University

What is the Middle East? § Middle East is not a geographical region o Concept based on a Western orientation to the world ▪ Alfred Thayer Mahan § Dominated by two major concerns o Religion of Islam o History of Arab people

What is the Middle East? § Culturally, Middle East dominated by the religion of Islam o Most Muslims live outside the region o Many differing cultures inside Islam o Myriad of interpretations of the religion § Region witnessed the birth of three monotheistic religions: o Judaism o Christianity o Islam

What is the Middle East? § Centuries of conflict between Muslims and Christians o o o Islamic conquests Arabic empires Western Crusades Mongol invasions Turkish domination Christian domination

What is the Middle East? § Three issues assisting in the illustration of the importance of the region: o Birth and spread of Islam o Confrontations between Christianity and Islam from the first Arab empire through creation of modern Israel o Expansion of conflict beyond the traditional geographical realm of the Middle East

A Brief Introduction to Islam § Mohammed was born about 750 CE in Mecca. § Mohammed’s vision of Gabriel told him God had chosen him to be a prophet to the Arabs. o Muslims believe that Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians worship the same Deity ▪ ▪ Muslims believe that the Bible is a book of Allah, and that Abraham and Jesus were messengers. Christians and Jews are called Dhimma = protected or guilty. § Mohammed’s role as the Prophet is crucial in Islam. o Given the direct revelation of God through Gabriel

Introduction to Islam § Mohammed’s emphasis of social egalitarianism was resented by wealthy merchants of Mecca. § Muslims believe Mohammed created perfect Islamic community at Medina o Combining a just government with religion ▪ Mohammed stressed importance of community over tribal relations and Governance of God’s law in all aspects of life. § Mohammed conquered Mecca. o New religion spread along trade routes. § Mohammed died in 632 CE.

The Shiite-Sunni Split § Utterances of Gabriel written down and codified in the Qur’an. o Mohammed’s statements were recorded. o His actions became the basis for interpreting the Qur’an. § Muslims were expected to: o Believe in the existence of one God and Mohammed as God’s Prophet. o Pray as a community. o Give to the poor. o Fast during holy times. o Make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime.

Shiite-Sunni Split § Question of leadership: o One group of people believed that Mohammed’s male heir should lead the community (according to Arabic tradition); they believed that Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law Ali had authority provided by God. o Another group of people believed that the community should select its own leaders – caliphs (political and religious leaders).

Shiite-Sunni Split ▪ Importance of community took precedence over tribal rule of inheritance – Sunni branch of Islam o Abu Bakr, become a first caliph in 632 CE, after his death (assassination) Umar became a caliph. o Assassination of Umar led to new caliph Uthman. o Assassination of Uthman

Shiite-Sunni Split § Sunnis, or mainstream Muslims, followed the caliph. o Sunnis compose approximately 85 -90% of all Muslims today. § Followers of Ali became known as Shiites. § Few theological differences between Sunnis and Shiites. o Main difference focused on line of succession to Mohammed.

Golden Age of Arabs § Following Mohammed’s death, Islam and Arabic culture spread through Middle East. § Two dynasties of leaders ruled the area: o Umayyads o Abbasids § Islam means submission to the will of God: o to make someone safe, to make peace, to submit oneself, to surrender § Muslim is one who submits: o Islam means the entire surrender of the will to God

Golden Age of Arabs § West began its first violent encounter with the Middle East through the Crusades (1095 -1250). o European attempts to conquer the Middle East § Crusades – instigated centuries of hatred and distrust between Muslims and Christians. o The Crusades ended over 700 years ago; Islamic Jihad continues to this day. § European struggles with Ottoman Empire reinforced years of military tensions.

Agrarian Response to Political Crisis § Armstrong – Islam went through a series of crises before and after 1492. o Agrarian empires falter – religious zealots rise to call faithful back to true meaning of the religion § Theologically driven political reform movement is brought about by: o Invasion of Mongol and Crusader armies. o Stagnation of Arab thought and technological development after 1200. o Collapse of Caliphate in 1922.

Militant Philosophy § Developing religions invite various interpretations § Reformers of Islam called believers to an idealized past when crises erupted o Gave rise to militancy o Militants misused theology of the reformers § Taqi al Din ibn Taymiyyah (Islamic scholar): o Developed new ideas about militancy and the faith after Arab setback of Mongols and Crusaders o Called for destruction of heretics and invaders o Called jihahad – the sixth pillar of Islam

Militant Philosophy § Taqi al Din ibn Taymiyyah o Muslims had fallen away from the truth o Must internally purify themselves o Believed Crusaders and Mongols defeated Islamic armies because Muslims had fallen away from true practice of Islam o Attacked anything threatening to come between humanity and God – emphasizing tawhid o Any belief that went beyond Mohammed’s revelation was to be subject to a purifying jihad o Expanded meaning of jihad to advocating attacks on non-believers and impure Muslims

Militant Philosophy § Abdul Wahhab: o Preached a puritanical strain of Islam in Saudi Arabia o Sought to rid the religion of practices added after the first few decades following Mohammed’s death. ▪ His followers argue that they are trying to rid religion of superstition. ▪ Muhammed bin Abd al-Wahhab’s descendents are known today as “Al al-Shaykh”. The family of Al al-Shaykh has included several religious scholars, including the current Saudi minister of justice and the current grand mufti of Saudi.

Militant Philosophy § Sayyid Qutb (Egyptian teacher and journalist): o 1965 published Milestones Ø Outlines theology and ideology of Jihadist revolution § Called on Muslims to overthrow corrupt governments of the West. o Muslims were in cosmic battle with the forces of darkness. Ø World descended to darkness shortly after the death of Mohammed § Called for the destruction of all enemies § Al Qaeda Manual cites Qutb as an inspirational source.

Modern Middle East § Three critical events helped shape modern Middle East in the late 1800 s: o Ottoman Empire ▪ Ruled much of the Middle East o Zionism ▪ European Jews wanted their own homeland ▪ Tensions rose when Jewish settlers moved into the area o World War I ▪ Victorious nations felt they had won the area from the Turks ▪ Divided Middle East to share spoils of victory

Mahan’s Middle East § Three factors became prominent in Middle Eastern violence: o The Palestinian question o Intra-Arab rivalries/struggles o The future of revolutionary Islam § Those factors are symbiotic – interdependent: o Express dissatisfaction over the existence of Israel o Are anti-imperialistic o United in kinship bonds

The Early Zionist Movement in Palestine § The Zionist movement broke out at the same time the Ottoman Empire was created. § Palestinians sold land to the Zionists; the ultimate purpose was to create a Jewish state. § The Zionists originally stated they had no desire to displace the Palestinians; they wanted to coexist with them.

World War I and contradictory Promises § British encouraged the Arabs to revolt against the Turks o Arabs were promised the Caliphate would be moved to Mecca and an Arab named as Caliph. o For a general Arab revolt against the Turks, the British agreed to support the creation of an independent Arab state at the end of WWI. § Balfour Declaration promised the creation of Israel. o Creation of Zionist Jewish homeland in Palestine o Directly contradicted promise to move the Caliphate to Mecca.

World War I and contradictory Promises § British negotiated a treaty with the French to extend their spheres of influence in the states of the old Ottoman Empire. § British also promised Russia control of one third (northern) of the area of Iran. § End of WWI the Middle East was controlled by British, French, and Russia. o Arabs and Jews could not develop under the watchful eyes of the British. o Both Arabs and Jews felt that they were given false promises and demanded their right to homeland. § Mandate of Palestine placed the British in the center of Middle Eastern affairs.

The Birth of Israel § Jews and Arabs resented the British; they also mistrusted each other. § Violence began in the 1920 s. § Jews displaced by the Nazi holocaust flocked to Palestine in late 1945 -1946. o British banned Jewish immigration. o Influx of Jewish immigrants continued. o Arabs start to arm themselves. § Modern terrorism resurfaced in Palestine before UN partition. § 1948 United Nations recognized the modern nation-state of Israel. o Arabs attacked immediately.

Arab Power Struggles and Arab - Israeli Wars § Modern Middle Easter terrorism: o Result of continuing conflicts in the twentieth century o Arab’s, Palestinians and Jews dissatisfaction with peace settlements after WW 1 ▪ The French and British created a number of states that did not reflect the realistic division in the Middle East: Libya, Syria, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq.

Arab Power Struggles and Arab - Israeli Wars § 1947 – 1967 Middle East was dominated by a series of short conventional wars. o Six Day War - 1967 o PLO began a series of terrorist attacks against Israeli civilians. o Arab states split into several camps: ▪ ▪ Jordan camp: anxious about finding way to coexist with Israel Egypt camp: avenge the embarrasment of the Six Day War Ba’ath Party: Arab socialists calls for both Arab unity and the destruction of Israel A group of wealthy oil states hoped for stability in the region o Yom Kippur War – Egyptians drove Israeli forces back into the Sinai; Syrians drove on to the Golan Heights.

Rise of Terrorism § Menachim Begin, Prime Minister of Israel, and Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt, signed the Camp David Peace Accord in 1979. o Soon after, Sadat was assassinated by Muslim fundamentals for signing peace with Israel. § Arabs rejecting peace with Israel fell into two camps: o Radicals rejected any peace or recognition of Israel. o Moderate groups were concerned about the fate of Palestinians.

Rise of Terrorism § In the 1980 s Middle Eastern terrorism fell into several broad categories: o Suicide bombings and other attacks on Israeli and Western positions in Lebanon o Various militias fought other militias in Lebanon (Lebanese Civil War 1975 -1990) o State-sponsored terrorism from Libya, Syria, and Iran o Freelance terrorism to high-profile groups o Terrorism in support of Arab-Palestinians o Attacks in Europe against Western targets o Israeli assassinations of alleged terrorists o Arab struggle against Arab: Iraq-Iran, Iraq-Kuwait

Iran § Iranians are not Arabs – they are Persian with strong ethno-national ties to the ancient Persian Empire. o Modern Iran formed within the context of European imperialism. o During the XIXth century, Iranians developed a hierarchy of Shi’ite Islamic scholars, including local prayer leaders, masters of Islam, Ayatollahs, and Grand Ayatollahs. o Iranian scholars form the majilis council, a theological advisory board to the government. ▪ Majilis took political leadership

Iran § British influence and control o British were instrumental in placing Iranian leaders on the throne. o In 1925 Reza Shah Pahlavi become Shah of Iran with British support. o 1930 s Reza Shah Pahlavi befriend Hitler; he saw Germany relations as a way to balance British influence. o In 1941 the Allied Powers forced Reza Shah Pahlavi to abdicate in favour of his son.

Iran § The U. S. took British place after WWII. o In 1953 Reza Shah Pahlavi formulated plan to stay in power. § In 1957 with the help of CIA and British recommendations, Reza Shah Pahlavi created SAVAK – a secret policy to destroy his enemies. § Clergy from Qom organized against Reza Shah Pahlavi – Shah released his forces and attacked Qom, one of his prisoners is Ruhollah (Ayatollah) Khomeini. § Iran disavowed the U. S. after the 1979 Iranian Revolution.

Iran § The Revolution: o Ruhollah Khomeini – Shiite Grand Ayatollah was leading figure in the 1979 Iranian Revolution. § Toppled the Shah’s government § Consolidated power by destroying or silencing his enemies. § Khomeini viewed President Carter as a manifestation of satanic power. § Created an Iranian theocracy with the majilis in charge of spiritual and temporal life. § Khomeini believed it was time to launch a holy war against the West and traitors to Islam. § Khomeini influenced majilis council dominated Iranian politics.

Iran § After Revolution: o New form of terrorism spread through the Middle East. o In 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon; Iranian revolutionaries traveled to Lebanon to help them resist Israel. ▪ The Iranians arrived to Bekka Valey and established the nucleus of a new type of revolutionary force – HEBOLLAH. o Khomeini used a mixture of repressive tactics and political strategies to consolidate his power in Iran. ▪ ▪ He removed Islamic scholars and political leaders. He believed that Iranian Revolution was a first step in puryfying the world.