Japan: features of lobbying and political system Prior to the second world war the Diet had been known as the Imperial Diet. Under the Meiji constitution it was the Emperor who exercised ultimate legislative power – albeit with the approval of the Diet. Under the post-war 1946 constitution (adopted in 1947) the Diet became the National Diet. Article 41 established the fact that the Diet is the “sole law making organ of the state”. The Emperor was reduced to a ceremonial role, and Japan was re-invented as a modern state with a constitutional monarchy and a bicameral legislature.
Functions of Diet • The Diet has wide-ranging powers, including: • The sole right to initiate legislation • The right to approve – or vote down – the annual Budget • The right to sanction – or refuse to sanction – treaties with foreign powers • The power to impeach judges found guilty of criminal offences • The right to decide who should be prime minister • The power to dissolve the government – if a motion introduced by at least 50 members of the House of Representatives is passed • The ability to draft changes to the constitution – which must then be approved by a referendum of the Japanese people
• If a bill is approved by the House of Representatives, but is then voted down by the House of Councilors, it still returns to the House of Representatives. If the bill is then passed again by the Lower House, with a majority greater than two thirds of those voting, it is immediately passed into law. • This procedure to establish the primacy of the House of Representatives applies to all normal bills. There is a separate procedure, however, for more important bills. These are bills to: • Select the prime minister • Adopt the Budget • Approve treaties with foreign powers
• In these instances, both Houses should agree. If they do not, a joint committee composed of both Houses is convened with a view to finding a compromise. If after 30 days a compromise is not reached the will of the House of Representatives prevails. • Cabinet of Ministers • In theory all ministers, including the prime minister are appointed by the Emperor. Since the adoption of the 1946 constitution the Emperor wields only symbolic power. • In practice the prime minister is chosen by the Diet. Both Houses are involved in the process, although ultimately the House of Representatives can over-rule the House of Councilors. There have been occasions when both Houses have put forward candidates for the post of prime minister, but the Lower House has always prevailed.
• Although Japan is a modern democracy with a constitutional monarchy and a huge (if currently static) economy, it presents enormous challenges to Western lobbyists. In common with most Asian states personal relationships are crucial. With the Japanese propensity (пристрастие) for elaborate courtesy and ritual such relationships can take a long time to develop. As with many other Asian cultures, it is considered very bad manners to just say “no”. Lobbyists and Western businessmen must therefore develop a sense for the true meaning of the various versions of “yes” which might be proffered (предлагать).
• Japan has a huge media industry. Newspaper readership (круг читателей) is reckoned (считаться) to be the highest in the world, and there also strong radio, TV and Internet media channels. These various branches of the media do report on politics, the activities of the government, and the foibles (недостаток) of individual members of the Diet and the government. They are constrained (сдерживаться) by membership of various press clubs. These are sponsored by government departments and agencies as well as senior politicians, and they are widely reckoned to have a negative impact on the independence of the press and its ability to expose corruption.
• Japanese industry is closely tied to government through a series of elaborate networks. Chief amongst these are the Japan Federation of Economic Organisations, the Japan Committee for Economic Development, and the Japan Federation of Employers Associations. There is also the less overt (публичный) – but no less powerful – informal network of the Zaibatsu. This informal network of giant conglomerate companies goes back to pre-war Imperial days, and still has a powerful hold over Japan’s economy (and political scene) today.
• The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (formerly the Ministry of International Trade and Industry) has been crucial to Japan’s post-war economic revival and its emergence as the world’s second largest economy. Officials in META hold huge sway (влияние) over Japan’s economy, and that Ministry should be your first port of call if you have a commercial issue or proposal.
Lobbying in India • As the largest democracy in the world (according to US point of view), India represents both a huge challenge and a huge opportunity for the public affairs professional. India is currently undergoing (претерпевать) large-scale market liberalisation and it is therefore the focus of many Western businesses. • As the structures of government, the legal systems and language are in many ways replicas (копия) of the British system. Western public affairs practitioners will find the terminology and practices familiar, although they will also find that the politics of India are far more complex.
• The constitution of India in part reflects the huge land mass and population of the country. It also reflects its heritage, and one of the reasons India has a parliamentary democracy similar to that of the United Kingdom is because of the long and close historical association between the two nations. • At the top of the pyramid is Parliament, which is elected by the people of India. The president has a nominal power base, the real power is wielded by the prime minister and his or her cabinet. The prime minister and the cabinet are drawn from a bicameral legislature, structured into two houses – the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
• Lok Sabha can introduce bills of financial nature. This restriction applies to all provisions for raising or abolishing taxes, and the appropriation of resources. These are known as “money bills”. • The Upper House – the Raiya Sabha – does examine and debate money bills. It cannot amend such bills, though it can make recommendations – which the Lok Sabha is perfectly at liberty to ignore. The Raiya Sabha must return all money bills to the Lok Sabha within 14 days. If the Lok Sabha accepts any recommendations from the Raiya Sabha then the money bill is deemed to have been passed. If on the other hand the Lok Sabha does not accept any of the recommendations of Rajya Sabha, the money bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses in the form in which it was passed by Lok Sabha, without any of the amendments recommended by Rajya Sabha.
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