is a branch of linguistics which deals with phraseological units
are ready made word-groups which function as word equivalents
set expressions set phrases Idioms etc.
The father of phraseology is a Swiss linguist Charles Bally (1865 – 1947), whose two books “Precis de stylistique” and “Traite de stylistique francaise” laid down the foundation of the science.
A lexical group of more than two words is called a word group and is analyzed on the syntagmatic level, i. e. in a linear relationship of words in speech. The words in a word group are connected semantically and structurally, but the degree of that connection is different in different word combinations. Accordingly there are two types of word groups: free word combinations and phraseological units.
In a free word combination words retain their semantic and structural independence. It is a non-predicative unit of speech consisting of two or more words which, however, express one concept: Man of word, man of wisdom, fresh milk, sour milk, to cry bitterly, to cry loudly, etc.
The elements of a free word group may be notional words and functional words. Its meaning is summed up from the meanings of the components which are interdependent. In free word combinations the components are interchangeable without destroying the meaning of the words, i. e. without a semantic change in the other elements.
Semantic interrelation of the components determines the structural meaning which can be of different patterns: to cry bitterly / to laugh merrily (action – quality); a man of word, a woman of taste (substance – quality); to lose a key, to cross the road (action – substance). Different components of a word group have different functions in a sentence: Fresh milk was not to be found for love or money. Free word combinations are produced, not reproduced in speech.
Phraseological units are word equivalents characterized by semantic and functional inseparability. A phraseological unit is a non-motivated word group which cannot be freely made up in speech, but is reproduced as a ready-made unit, an unchangeable collocation: A sharp remark, the lungs of London, to go to sea, to move house, etc.
Semantic inseparability(lack of motivation): the denotational meaning of a PU belongs to the whole word group as an inseparable unit.
Structural stability (predictability of occurence): Phraseological units have an unchangeable structure where no component can be changed in terms of form or order Hungry as a hunter (not “as a wolf”), every cloud has a silver lining (not “all clouds”) / нет худа без добра.
Syntactic cohesion: phraseological units perform a single function in a sentence, are never split syntactically. From this point of view they are noun equivalents: He used it as a red herring / She collected lions of society / It turned out a flash in a pan (осечка, неудача); verb equivalents: You are crying for the moon (хотеть невозможного) / He is sitting on the fence (занять выжидающую позицию) / She upset the apple cart (расстроить все планы);
adjective equivalents: She was always as busy as a bee / He felt ill at ease; adverb equivalents: The phrase put him on the alert (насторожить) / He will do it by hook or crook (не мытьем, так катаньем); interjection equivalents: By George! Bless you! Tell it to the marines!
According to the degree of idiomatic character (V. V. Vinogradov) PUs fall into 1) phraseological combinations (collocations) – фразеологические сочетания; 2) phraseological unities – фразеологические единства; 3) phraseological fusions (idioms) – фразеологические сращения, идиомы.
Phraseological combinations are motivated word groups with a partially changed meaning. In phr. combinations only one of the components is used figuratively, the others are used in their direct sense: to cast a glance, to take office, to freeze wages, a family tree, a flood of tears, etc.
Phraseological unities are word groups with a transferred meaning, the transfer being based on either metaphor or metonymy. They are considered motivated as the shift of meaning is transparant: to pull the strings (знать все ходы и выходы) / to go in one ear and out of the other / wet to the skin / to build castles in the air / to make a mountain out of a molehill (делать из мухи слона), etc.
Phraseological fusions are non-motivated word groups with a completely changed meaning which is totally obscure and can be deduced only historically: to get the sack (вылететь с работы) / to paint the town red (устроить шумную вечеринку) / to have a bee in the bonnet (быть одержимым навязчивой идеей), etc.
Phraseological units may be divided into native: a crooked sixpence (талисман) / to keep one’s fingers crossed / a black sheep, to meet one’s Waterloo (потерпеть поражение) / to carry coal to Newcastle (ходить со своим уставом в чужой монастырь), etc. borrowed (calques): second to none (nulli secundus – Latin) / point of honour (French) / to buy a pig in a poke (French), etc. taken from literary sources, legends, the Bible: to cross the Rubicon, to cut the Gordian knot, to turn the other cheek, a fly in the ointment, to kill the fatted calf (радушно принять), vanity fair, in a pickwickian sense (не буквально, не прямо), etc.
one-summit (одновершинные) two- and multi-summit (двуи многовершинные)
In one-summit units there is only one semantic and structural centre: phrasal verbs, verb-equivalents with “to be” in their structure (to be behind the scenes – действовать закулисно, to be aware of, etc. ), nominative units with prepositions equivalent to adverbs (with a bump, out of this world, between two fires, on the doorstep, etc. ). In two- and multi-summit units there are several semantic and structural centers: redbrick university, to take to the cleaner’s (заработать нечестным путем), on cloud seven or nine (досчитать до … при бессоннице), now or never, etc.
Proverb is a short familiar saying which expresses popular wisdom or teaches a moral lesson in a concise, epigrammatic way. Proverbs are expressed by affirmative, negative or interrogative sentences: Silence gives consent / One cannot run with the hare and hunt with the hound / Can the leopard change his spots?
Proverbs provide basis for set expressions: the last straw (последняя капля, from “the last straw that broke the camel’s back”), a bird in the hand (from “a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush”), Jack of all trades (and the master of nothing), etc.
is a comparatively new science and is still in its early stages of development.
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10 Phraseology in the English language.pptx