Introduction to International Relations Introduction to the Course

Introduction to International Relations Introduction to the Course

The Objective of the Course n n n Focus on the basic concepts and actors in International Relations. See the common points and controversies of different theories Evaluate the evolution of the international system since the end of the Second World war.

Major Questions in World Politics n n n Who are the basic actors in world politics? (the structure of the international system, states, classes, genders, individuals)? Are states the major actors in international systems? What is the role of non-state actors? What are the causes of war? Is the primary reason nationalism, ideology, the lack of world government, or the fact that people are by nature aggressive?

Major Questions n n n What is power in international affairs, and why is it important? What is the relationship between military and economic power? Is power increasingly defined in terms of economic rather than military means, and if so, why?

Major Questions n n n Does the lack of central government (anarchy) create the problem of the security dilemma? Can stability be achived in the international system? If yes how? What is the impact of globalization on the state and world politics?

Major Questions n n n Are democratic states more peaceful than non-democratic states? Why do states cooperate? What role do International Organizations have in international politics?

Outline of the Lecture n n n What is international relations and why do we study it? In what ways IR theories are important to the study of international relations? What are the principal concepts and theoretical debates in the field?

IR in Broader Terms n n International relations is the study of the nature and consequences of the relations among the world’s governments. Apart from dealing with relations among states, IR also covers other actors like international organizations, Multinational Corporations (MNCs), and individuals with other social structures and processes (including economics, culture, and domestic politics).

Why to study IR? n n In a globalised economy, most jobs today require an understanding of the international political and economic environment in which businesses operate So today, our daily lives themselves are increasingly international in focus

What made our lives that international? n n Improvements in communications technologies particularly internet and transportation technologies enable us to come into contact with people, places, products, opportunities and ideas from other countries very easily and rapidly. Improvements in communications technologies and integrated markets consolidate the process of globalization which directly impact our daily lives.

Globalization and IR n n n Two key events reflect globalization: a. 9/11 terrorist attacks: The terrorists used the internet for planning, coordinating and fundraising for the attacks. b. The global economic recession of 20082009: It began with the collapse of the US home mortgage market and spread quickly to other countries due to highly integrated global financial markets.

Globalization and IR n n n Like globalization and IR impact our daily life, individual citizens can influence the world as well by: -voting in an election -buying a product or service on world markets -watching the news The choices we make in our daily lives ultimately affect the world we live in.

Collective Goods Problem n n n IR revolves around one key problem: How can a group (such as two or more countries) serve its collective interests when doing so requires its members to forgo their individual interests? Ex: Each country has an interest in stopping global warming. This goal can only be achieved by many countries acting together. But, each country has an individual interest in burning fossil fuels to keep its economy going. Ex: all members of a military alliance benefit from the strength of the alliance, but each member has an interest in minimizing its own contributions in troops

Collective Goods Problem n n n This problem of shared interests versus conflicting interests among members of a group is called free riding, burden sharing or collective goods problem. Collective goods are easier to provide in small groups than in large ones. In a small group, free-riding or cheating is difficult and is easier to punish. Ex: G-7, G-20

IR and Collective Goods Problem n n The collective goods problem is problematic for the IR because each nation is sovereign: there is no central government to enforce on inidividual nations the necessary measures to contribute to the common good. By contrast, in domestic politics within countries, a government can force individuals to contribute to the common good such as paying taxes.

How to solve Collective Goods Problem in IR n 3 basic principles such as dominance, reciprocity, and identity offer possible solutions to the core problem of getting individuals to cooperate for the common good without a central authority to make them do so.

Dominance n n Dominance: The principle of domainance solves the collective action problem by establishing a power hierarchy in which those at the top control those below. Staying on top a hierarchy does not depend on strength alone. The top actor may be the one most succesful at forming and maintaining alliances among the group’s powerful members.

Dominance n n In IR, the principle of dominance underlies the great power system, in which powerful countries dictate the rules for the others. Ex: The structure of the UN Security Council reflects the dominance principle: Only 5 powerful countries of the Security Council hold the veto power.

Dominance n n The solution of dominance principle to the collective goods problem: Like a government it forces members of a group to contribute to the common good. Disadvantage: the oppression and resentment of low-ranking members. Conflicts over position in the hierarchy can harm the group’s stability; it can lead to wars among great powers.

Reciprocity n n The principle of reciprocity solves the collective goods problem by rewarding behavior that contributes to the group and punishing behaviour that pursues self-interest at the expense of the group. Reciprocity may operate positively (You sctratch my back and I will scratch yours), or negatively (an eye for an eye and a tooh for a tooth).

Reciprocity n n In IR, reciprocity forms the basis of most of the norms and institutions in the international system. Many organizations such as World Trade Organization (WTO) recognizes reciprocity as the basis for cooperation. Ex: If one country opens its markets to another’s goods, the other opens its markets in return. On the negative side, reciprocity may trigger arms race as each side responds to the other’s build-up of weapons.

Identity n n n A third solution is the identities of participants as members of a community. The roots of this principle lie in the family and the kinship group. As members of a family care about each other, so do members of an ethnic group, a gender group, a nation, or a professional group like scientists. Ex: A European Jew may give money to Israel because of a shared Jewish identity.

Identity n n n In IR, identity communities play important roles in overcoming difficult collective goods problems, including the issue of who contributes to development assistance, and UN peacekeeping missions. The large foreign aid contributions of the Scandinavian countries or the high Canadian participation in peacekeeping cannot only be explained self-interest. These countries behave like that because of their self-defined identities as members of the international community. Non-state actors, such as NGOs, feminist organizations, MNCs, churches or terrorist networks also rely on identity politics.

Case study for collective goods problem n n The problem of nuclear proliferation: All countries share an interest in the collective good of peace and stability, but there also countries that make nuclear weapons. In 2006, North Korea tested its first nuclear bomb and Iran continued its uranium enrichment. Dominance approach: only few powerful countries can have nuclear weapons. Based on the NPT Treaty, the big five countries try to prevent others from acquiring nuclear weapons. In 2003, the US invaded Iraq and overthrew its government as it thought Saddam Husseyin might have an active nuclear weapons program. Similarly, when Iraq began working for a nuclear bomb in 1982, Israel sent its jets to bomb Iraq’s nuclear facility.

Case study for collective goods problem n n n These dominance solutions create resentment among smaller countries. Non-nuclear weapon states expect that nuclear weapon states will get rid of their nuclear weapons and nuclear-free world would be created. Other countries also ask what gives Israel the right to bomb another country or the US the right to invade one. They speak of a double standard for the powerful and the weak.

Case study for collective goods problem n n n Reciprocity: The NPT ensures that nuclear weapons states disarm in exchange for nonnuclear weapon states’ agreement not to develop nuclear weapons. Threats: The US warned North Korea in 2006 not to sell its bombs. Rewards: When Libya gave up its nuclear weapons program in 2003, the international community gave it various rewards, including the ending of economic sanctions.

Case study for collective goods problem Identity: many countries that have the technical ability to develop nuclear weapons chose not to do so. Sweden as a neutral state does not intend to fight wars. Germany under the nuclear protection of the US within the NATO does not need a nuclear bomb. Japan’s experience of the nuclear destruction in 1945 shaped japan’s identity as a country that does not want nuclear weapons, even though it has the know-how and the stockpile of plutonium to make them.

Peace of Westphalia and the State System n n n The history of state system is the history of international relations and goes back to the Peace of Westphalia (1648) Peace of Westphalia is regarded as the starting point for the international relations: It gave an end to the Holy Roman Empire and established the modern European state system. This newly created European state system was based on the concept of sovereignty that was introduced by the Peace of Westphalia. This principle ensured the independence of states in a specific territory and also the right to determine the religion within their territory Westphalia agreement also encouraged the institutionalization of diplomacy and armies.

The Concept of Sovereignty n n n n The basic rules of the state system are derived from the concept of sovereignty: Two key principles of contemporary IR were established: The principal of internal sovereignty: a government is supreme within its own territory and authority External sovereignty: externally, a sovereign government is accountable to no higher authority No other international actor, state or otherwise, has the authority to interfere in the internal affairs of another state Since each government is sovereign within its boundaries, sovereign states are equal in the legal sense, despite their disparities in terms of power These basic rules determine the way in which world politics is conducted. It established the independent nation-state.

Shift of the International System n n The international system shifted from empires to independent nation states The relations between such independent states have been labeled as ‘international relations’

State System (1815 -1914): n n Actors: relatively small number of states, growing but limited number of non-state actors, system focus on Europe, limited impact of ideological divisions between state actors Structure: multipolar, five great powers: Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia Patterns of interaction: great power war diminished in frequency, but increases in intensity, severity. Costs of war increase with industrialization. Developments in communication technologies lead to expansion of international trade and commerce. With the improved communications, importance of diplomacy increases Rules and practices: a managed balance of power system. undermined by the growth of the German power. Use of great power conferences to resolve disputes

Changing Nature of the State System n n State system is not static. Different historical periods generate new principles and practices and new power centers Whereas Spain, Portugal, Sweden Denmark were the great powers of the 17 th century, they were no longer so in the 18 th century. 19 th century was dominated by 5 powers: Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia.

Cold War (1945 -89): n n Actors: rapid expansion in number of both state and non-state actors, emergence of a global international system. ideological divisions. Structure: bipolar, two superpowers, an emerging tripolar system in the 1970 s. development of nuclear weapons and military competition. North-south divide Patterns of interaction: costs of war increases with the nuclear weapons. International trade continues to grow, but through regional blocs. Growth of multilateral diplomacy, economic interdependence Rules and practices: Superpowers use summit diplomacy in managing relationship

Domination of Europe in the State System n n n European state system was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia through colonialism and Western imperialism In the 19 th century, international system was dominated by European powers. Emergence of new states as colonies of European empires.

Enlargement of the State System n n After the Second World War, with the decolonization process in Asia and Africa, the socalled Third World, once colonized states became independent. Growth of the idea of national self-determination as a basis for the structure of international relations. Europe, once the center of the international system weakened by two world wars, lost its centrality. By 1945, world arena dominated by two rival superpowers: US vs. SU. The dissolution of the Soviet Union together with the breakup of Yugoslavia at the end of the Cold War, many new independent states joined to the state system: Baltic States, Ukraine, Georgia. . .

State System as a Global Institution n n The number of actors operating in the system increased, almost 200 states exist in the world today and the state system turned out to be a global institution. So, today states are part of an international system that is global in scope. That means that world politics cover variety of states that differ from each other substantially in terms of their cultures, religions, languages, forms of government, military capacity, levels of economic and technological development. The ordering of the states at the top of the world hierarchy changed: rise of the United States International system became also divided in terms of the distribution of wealth between rich and poor countries.

Rise of Non-State Actors n n n Non-state actors assumed an important role in world politics. Two categories: Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOS): its membership consists of government representatives (UN, Association of south Asian nations (ASEAN) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): membership lies outside the government sphere.

Growth of state and non-state actors since 1945 n n n n Year 1946 1956 1960 1972 1981 1989 1992 States 55 80 100 132 157 159 182 IGOs 132 154 280 337 300 286 INGOs 973 1255 2173 4265 4621 4696

Growth of state and non-state actors n Today in addition to around 200 sovereign states, there are more than 300 international intergovernmental organizations. The number of internationally operating NGOs across the world is around 40, 000.

Challenge to the State System n That is a fundamental change in the state system and a fundamental challenge for IR scholars to theorize. n These 200 different states interact with each other and affect each other n Economic interdependence requires that they enter into relations with each other. n n Complete isolation is usually not an option. When states are isolated and are cut off from the state system, their people usually suffer as a result. That has been the case recently with regard to Libya, North Korea, Iraq, and Iran. Therefore, they must somehow find ways to exist all together and to deal with each other.

What is State? n n n How important is it? How should we think about it? Different answers depending on theoretical approach adopted. Characteristics of a state: a territorial base a population a sovereign government that means it enjoys a monopoly in the exercise of legitimate coercive power within its boundaries.

The Central Role of States in World Politics n n n No other international actor possess these characteristics. Antarctica is not a state lacking people and a government. Similarly colonies are not regarded as independent state actors as they lack sovereign governments. UN covers a range of issues that are central to domestic and world politics: education, health, employment, environmental pollution. But no other actor than state provide all these services for its citizens. States provide security, maintain public order, facilitate trade and investment, arbitrate in domestic disputes, and affect distribution of wealth in pursuit of social justice.

Basic values states are expected to provide n n n security freedom order justice welfare These social values are so fundamental to human well-being that they must be protected or ensured in some way. In the modern era, the state is expected to ensure these basic values.

Focus on Security: Realist Approach n n n Friendly vs. agressive states there is no world government or higher authority to constrain them: problem of national security. military power is usually considered a necessity so that states can coexist and deal with each other without being intimidated or threatened. alliances with other states to increase their national security. To ensure that no great power succeeds in achieving a hegemonic position on other states, it is also necessary to construct and maintain a balance of military power. Such an approach to the study of world politics is called realist theories of IR It operates on the assumption that relations of states are based on competition and conflict due to the possibility of war.

Freedom and Liberal Theory n n n The second basic value is freedom, both personal freedom and national freedom or independence. Having states, paying taxes or obligations of military service is the condition of national freedom or independence. War threatens and sometimes destroys freedom. Peace fosters freedom. Peace also makes progressive international change possible, that is, the creation of a better world. This approach to the study of world politics is called liberal theories of IR. It operates on the assumption that international relations can be best characterized as a world in which states cooperate with each other to maintain peace and freedom and to pursue progressive change.

Wealth and Welfare n n n People expect their government to adopt appropriate policies to encourage high employment, low inflation, steady investment, the uninterrupted flow of trade and commerce, and so forth. To enhance or at least defend and maintain the national standard of living. States engage in economic policies that can deal adequately with international markets, with foreign investment, with foreign exchange rates, with international trade, with international transportation and communications, and with other international economic relations that affect national wealth and welfare.

IR theories and the Basic Values n n Traditional IR theories recognize the significance of these basic values even if they disagree about which ones are most important Realists emphasize the importance of security and order Liberals emphasize freedom and justice IPE scholars emphasize economic equality and welfare

Which Countries to Focus on ? n n Realist scholars focus mainly on the states at the center of the system: the major powers and especially the great powers. They see Third World states as marginal players in a system of power politics. Such marginal or peripheral states do not affect the system in any very significant way. Some IPE scholars, usually Marxists, focus on the underdevelopment of peripheral countries and the unequal relations between the center and the periphery of the global economy. They investigate international linkages between the poverty of the Third World, or the South, and the enrichment of America, Europe, and other parts of the North. They argue that the developed capitalist states advance their interests at the expense of the weak, underdeveloped states at the periphery.

The Level of Analysis n n n The many actors involved in IR lead to competing explanations and theories. Is the cause of war found in the nature of individuals, are humans innately aggressive. Or in the nature of states and societies. Are some types of states more aggressive. Or in the nature of international system of states. Each answer reflects a different level of analysis: individual, state and society, international (inter-state or sytemic), and global.

The Individual Level of Analysis n n n The individual level of analysis concerns the perceptions, choices, and actions of individuals. Ex: Without Lenin, there might have been no Soviet-Union. Ex: If Nixon instead of Kennedy had won the 1960 elections, the Cuban Missile Crisis might have ended differently.

The Domestic (Societal) Level of Analysis n n The Domestic (Societal) Level of Analysis concerns the groups of individuals within states that influence state actions in the international arena. Such groups include interest groups, political organizations, and government agencies. These groups operate differently in different societies and states. Ex: Democracies and dictatorships may act differently from one another. Within governments, foreign policy agencies often fight bureacratic battles over policy decisions.

The Interstate (Sytemic) Level of Analysis n n n The Interstate (Sytemic) Level of Analysis concerns the influence of the international system upon outcomes. This level of analysis focuses on the interactions of states themselves, without regard to their domestic situation or the particular individuals who lead them. This level pays attention to states’ relative power positions in the international system and the interaction (for instance, trade) among them.

The Global Level of Analysis n n The global level of analysis: This level tries to explain international outcomes in terms of global trends and forces that trannscend the interactions of states themselves. The evolution of technology, worldwide beliefs, humans’ relationship to the natural environment are all processes at the global level that influence IR.

Case: The 2003 US-led War against Iraq n n n The individual level of analysis: The war can be attributed to Saddam Hussein’s gamble that he could defeat the forces against him. Or The war can be attributed to president Bush’s desire to remove a leader he personally deemed threatening.

Case: The 2003 US-led War against Iraq n n The domestic level of analysis: The war can be attributed to the rise of the powerful neoconservative faction that convinced the Bush administration and Americans that Saddam was a threat to US security after the 9/11 attacks.

Case: The 2003 US-led War against Iraq n n The interstate (systemic) level of analysis: The war can be attributed to the predominance of the US power. With no state willing to back Iraq militarily, the US as the largest global military power was free to attack Iraq without fear of a large-scale military response.

Case: The 2003 US-led War against Iraq n n The global level of analysis: The war can be attributed to a global fear of terrorism, or even a clash between Islam and the West.

Case 2: Nuclear Proliferation and Iran n n Systemic-Level Motivations: Quest for Security Seeking Regional Hegemony Gaining International Prestige Obtaining Bargaining Advantages

Case 2: Nuclear Proliferation and Iran n n n State-Level Motivations: Domestic Conflicts Economic motivations Public Opinion Scientific/Technological Momentum Bureaucratic Politics

Case 2: Nuclear Proliferation and Iran n n Individual-Level Motivations: Attitudes and Beliefs of Leaders

Importance of the Unit of Analysis n n Different levels emphasize different actors and processes for explaining an event. There is no single correct level for a given ‘why’ questions.

IR Theories and Unit of Analysis n n n Neo-realists tend to show the structure of international system influences the behavior of states or the perception of decision makers. Thus, they emphasize the system level. Similarly globalists examine how the historical development of the capitalist world economy generates state actors. System level. Pluralists examine bureaucracies, interest groups and individuals. So they use state-societal and individual levels of analysis.

Agent-Structure Problem n Connected to levels of analysis issue n Is the structure or the agency that we should focus on ? n The problem results from the 2 truths about social life: n First, human agency is the only moving force behind the actions, events and outcomes of the social world n Second, human agency can be realized only in concrete structures that condition possibilities for action. n Agents vs. structure. This problem creates difficulties of developing theory that successfully includes both dimensions.