Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology Increase in scientific

Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology

Increase in scientific interest in cross-cultural psychology of the last decades is firmly rooted in societal developments in many Western countries: globalization and migration (leading to an increase of cross-cultural encounters)

What is cross-cultural psychology? • "Cross-cultural research in psychology is the explicit, systematic comparison of psychological variables under different cultural conditions in order to specify the antecedents and processes that mediate the emergence of behaviour differences" (Eckensberger, 1972, p. 100). 4

What is cross-cultural psychology? (cont’d) • "Cross-cultural psychology is concerned with the systematic study of behaviour and experience as it occurs in different cultures, is influenced by culture, or results in changes in existing cultures" (Triandis, 1980, p. 1). 5

What is cross-cultural psychology? (cont’d) Cross-cultural psychology is the study: of similarities and differences in individual psychological functioning in various cultural and ethnocultural groups of the relationships between psychological variables and socio-cultural, ecological and biological variables and of ongoing changes in these variables (Berry et al. , 2012)

Fundamental questions of CCP How deep are cross-cultural differences in psychological functioning? 2. What are the main methodological challenges to the field? How can methodological advances help us in improving the quality of our research? 3. How does culture become ingrained in human development? 4. What is the relationship between individual and culture? 1.

Basic features of cross-cultural psychology (CCP) Cross-cultural psychology includes such branches as: - cultural psychology - indigenous psychologies - culture-comparative psychology. CCP relates to intercultural psychology but it is not the same.

Сultural psychology • Cultural psychology seeks to discover meaningful links between a culture and the psychology of individuals living in this culture. • The main focus of cultural psychology is to study whether, when, and how individuals growing up in a particular culture tend to internalize that culture’s qualities (Cole, 1996). • Cultural psychology advocates the idea that mental processes are essentially the products of an interaction between culture and the individual.

INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY • Main idea - it is not possible to fully understand the psychology of the people in a particular ethnic group without a complete understanding of the social, historic, political, ideological, and religious premises that have shaped people of this group. • Indigenous theories are characterized by the use of conceptions and methodologies associated exclusively with the cultural group under investigation (Ho, 1998). • Kim and Berry (1993) define indigenous psychologies as the scientific study of human behavior, or the mind, that is designed for a people, is native and not transported from other regions.

2. Relationships between culture and behaviour

The key question How to study relationships between culture and human behaviour? Some suggestions for conceptual distinctions: provide ‘maps’ to define various branches and approaches to this question. Some methodological suggestions for carrying out cross-cultural and intercultural research.

Culture and behavior: three perspectives Absolutism Relativism Universalism • No cultural variations in psychological phenomena. • Culture is not important in the explanation of the development or display of human behaviour. • Comparisons are made easily and without regard to cultural factors. • All psychological phenomena are so embedded in cultural context that behaviour in each culture must be examined in its own terms. • Hence, comparisons are impossible. • Basic psychological processes are common to all human populations. • Culture plays an important role in their development and display. • Comparisons can be made on the basis of these underlying commonalities Berry et. al 1992, 2002

Theoretical position of Universalism 1. All fundamental psychological processes are present in all cultural populations. Hence, cross-cultural psychology accepts the existence of basic psychological communalities at a deep level of functioning. 2. These basic processes are developed and displayed in different ways in different cultures. These underlying process similarities provide a valid basis for making comparisons.

Three distinctions and assumptions of universalism 1. Basic psychological processes and capacities are present in all individuals in all cultures (eg. , perceiving, remembering, having emotions, and social relations). 2. Culture interacts with these basic psychological features and shapes their development into individual competencies. 3. Cultures provide the context that influence the performance of these individual competencies.

The universalist position bases on the widely-held distinctions (1) in psychology between process, competence and performance: - Processes are those fundamental psychological features of human life that are widely-shared and (as far as it is known) are culturally invariant. - Competencies are those features of psychological life that develop as a result of interaction between basic processes and cultural experience. These vary across cultures. - Performances are the expressions of competencies in the appropriate situations. Also vary across cultures.

Example of Universalism: Language 1. All human beings have the processes and capacities to develop language and communication -> more than one language can be acquired. 2. Cultures influence which language(s) an individual will acquire. 3 Cultural and social situations will influence which language(s) a person will use in any particular situation.

Methodological Issues • The practical requirements of carrying out comparative psychological research (either cross-cultural or intercultural) are difficult to meet. • Following are some tools that have been developed and used in such research: 1. Ecocultural framework 2. Equivalence and comparability.

Ecocultural Approach • Groups and individuals develop their customary and individual behaviours as adaptations to the demands of their ecology, as they live in particular ecosystems. Hence, similar habitats should give rise to patterns of social institutions and behaviours that are shared, common ways of living. • The approach also considers sociopolitical influences on the population from outside the local habitat (eg. , acculturation via schooling, religion) to be important sources of social and psychological development. These two sets of external influences will alter the basic cultural and psychological features of people

Ecocultural Approach • Understanding the relationships between cultural contexts and human behaviour requires that both contexts and behaviors be assessed independently. • Contexts are seen as complex networks of interrelated ecological, cultural and sociopolitical variables. Behaviours are similarly viewed as complex sets of inter-related variables.

Ecocultural Framework

Ecocultural Framework • To summarise, the ecocultural framework considers human diversity (both cultural and psychological) to be a set of collective and individual adaptations to context. • Within this general perspective, it views cultures as evolving adaptations to ecological and sociopolitical influences, and views individual psychological characteristics in a population as adaptive to their cultural context. • It also views (group) culture and (individual) behaviour as distinct phenomena at their own levels, phenomena that need to be examined independently.

Emics and Etics • These terms derive from linguistics where phonemics and phonetics are distinguished • Emics are local and culturally-specific phenomena. • Etics are culturally-general. • They are of two types: -Imposed etics- imported from outside. -Derived etics- generated from inside. • Both approaches are required to ‘gain perspective’ on a phenomenon (Pike).

Models of Cross-Cultural Differences (classical) 25

More modern models • More emphasis on non-dichotomous nature of emic —etic distinction • More emphasis on empirical aspects of discussion – Some behaviors maybe emic, some behaviors may be etic • Change of terminology – Emic culture-specific – Etic universal (in the sense of pan-human) 26

What is Emerging? • New field with renewed interest • Compared to the first generation, new studies are – – – – Less anthropologically oriented More psychologically oriented Less theory driven More data-driven Using more modern data collection and analysis methods More comparative More focused on Western and less on non-Western cultures 27

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What is culture? Culture is ‘the human-made part of the environment’ (Herskovitz, 1955) Culture is like a computer program that controls behavior (Hofstede, 1980) Culture is the software of the mind (Hofstede, 1991)

Cultural antropology suggests types of definitions (1/2) • Descriptive –list any and all aspects of human life • Historical – emphasize the accumulation of tradition over time • Normative – emphasize shared rules which govern activity of people • Psychological – variety of psychological features (problem-solving, learning, habits). • Ex. : culture is learned, and the result of this learning is the establishment of habits and collective customs in a particular group

Definitions of culture Culture, broadly conceived as all that individuals learn from others that endures to generate customs and traditions, shapes vast swathes of human lives (Whiten, Hinde, Laland, and Stinger, 2012) Culture is a unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue happiness and wellbeing, and derive meaning from life (Matsumoto & Juang, 2016). • Poortinga, Y. (2015). Is “Culture” a Workable Concept for (Cross-)Cultural Psychology? . Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1). http: //dx. doi. org/10. 9707/2307 -0919. 1139

Triandis (1994): Culture is a set of human-made objective and subjective elements that in the past have increased the probability of survival and resulted in satisfactions for the participants in an ecological niche, and thus became shared among those who could communicate with each other because they had a common languge and lived in the same time and place

Is Culture a Uniquely Human Product? • Many animals are social; that is, they work and live in groups. Fish swim in schools, wolves hunt in packs, and lions roam in prides. • In animal societies, there are clear social networks and hierarchies. The staring game played by us humans as children is used by animals to create dominance hierarchies. And like the human game, the animal that smiles or averts its gaze loses and becomes the subordinate. • Many animals invent and use tools (Whiten, Horner, & De Waal, 2005). Perhaps the most famous initial example of this were the monkeys who used twigs to get insects to eat. Japanese monkeys at Koshima Island washed sweet potatoes and bathed in the sea (Matsuzawa, 2001). • Many animals communicate with each other. Bees communicate via a complex dance concerning the source of flowers. Ants leave trails to communicate their paths to themselves and others. And relatives of monkeys who wash sweet potatoes at Koshima Island themselves began to wash sweet potatoes.

What is different? • Human cultures are cumulative; knowledge, tools, technology, and know-how accumulate over time and continue to improve • Humans have specialized socio-cognitive skills (teaching through verbal instructions, imitation and prosociality, that allow them to reach highlevel solutions when solving problems. • Cumulative culture allows human cultures to differ from animal cultures on complexity, differentiation and institutionalization

A theoretical framework for studying ecology, culture, and behavior Simple way to think of culture: Ecology -> Culture -> Socialization -> Personality -> Behavior

Ecology Features of ecological niche define which individual characteristics increase chances of the group to survive. VS. Farming community and hunting band requires different characteristics of members. Those who misfit may be removed from breeding population. Such changes in the gene pool makes genes consistent with ecology.

History

Socialization and Personality Cultures have different ways of raising children. Socialization differences can lead to personality differences. Warm and supportive parents have optimistic and well adjusted children. Rejecting or indifferent parents have pessimistic, emotionally unstable, hostile, poorly adjusted children.

Culture relates to the health status of individuals World Health Organization 2011

Culture and Sex-Role Inequality Men have more status and power across cultures But these differences are not the same in all countries

Culture and Morality Collectivist cultures Individualistic cultures Morality is a function of what is good for the group Morality emphasizes personal rights Acting on the basis of what is the best in a particular situation People are likely to act based on abstractions such as «the truth» Conflict between individual and group resolves by the moral submitting to the will of the group «The greatest good for the greatest number»

Marsella, A. (2012). Psychology and globalization: Understanding a complex relationship Journal of Social Issues, 68(3), 454 -472.

History of Globalization • Initial ideas and thoughts about globalization emerged largely from the economic and business sectors; it was soon acknowledged (mid-1970 s) that globalization had critical political implications since multinational corporations and global corporations were competing for national loyalties and allegiances. • What is special about globalization for our present period is that telecommunications and transportation have literally placed all of our lives with all of its consequences in near immediate contact and impact.

Ambivalence Toward Globalization • Globalization has brought some positive changes. It is, for some individuals and nations, an opportunity. • Yet, simultaneously, it is punitive, bringing with it massive destructions in the social fabric of a society with all of the problems this entails. • There are both positive and negative evaluations and judgments of globalization’s sources, processes, and consequences, depending upon who is doing the commentary and why.

Definition of Globalization • Globalization is both a process and product; they are reciprocally determined; • the primary drivers of globalization are all events, forces, and changes that are transnational, transcultural, and transborder, especially: capital flow, ownership, trade, telecommunications, transportation, political and military alliances, and international agencies (Marsella, 1997, 2001). • Globalization can occur at many different levels (e. g. , individual, community, societal, national, regional) and it can have many different sources (e. g. , economic, political, cultural, geographic, technical, medical, psychological).

‘Hegemonic globalization’ Within the context of hegemonic globalization (being imposed or driven by a few nations), globalization is nothing more than colonization disguised as mutual trade interests. A serious concern is the hegemonic imposition of values associated with North American—that is, United States—popular culture, including individualism, materialism, competition, hedonism, rapid change (‘progress’), profit, greed, commodification, consumerism, reductionism, celebritization, privatization, and English-language preference. These values carry with them a way of life that is alien and offensive to many people throughout the world, even residents in Western cultures. Of special concern is the fact that American popular culture values are becoming the preferences of youth around the world (Marsella, 2005, p. 16)

Influence of Globalization on Identities and values • New global community would require multiple loyalties (Sandel, 1996, p. 74). The requirement of multiple loyalties, multiple identities, multiple citizenships relating to cities, nations, regions, and ultimately the world, challenges the way in which psychology has typically conceptualized group identity. • Clearly, globalization is a source of anxiety because it threatens traditional sources of meaning and value. Furthermore it has, for many serious analysts, now become a principle source of global injustice, inequity, corruption and violence (Nasser, 2005). Although one is ultimately responsible to construct a life of meaning and value, social and economic conditions may facilitate or impede this process. A globalization process that impoverishes and marginalizes masses of the world’s people inhibits people’s efforts to see their lives as having meaning and value. A globalization process that truly enhances development and opportunity would facilitate these efforts (Salzman, 2008, p. 326).

• Globalization characterized by: (1) Ethics–Less violation of human rights; (2) Equity–Less disparity among nations; (3) Inclusion–Less marginalization of people and countries; (4) Human Security–Less political and economic instability and vulnerability; o (5) Sustainability–Less environmental destruction; o (6) Development–Less poverty and deprivation. o o • The fact that globalization exacts influence at many different levels as both a source of problems and opportunities for individuals, societies, and nations offers psychology an opportunity to make a profound contribution to understanding and addressing the challenges posed by globalization and amplify the opportunities provided by globalization.

Jia, Wenshan (2017). Now, Globalization With Chinese Characteristics Yale. Global Online.

China-initiated Globalization Chiglobalization is “the increasing global relevance, global presence, global influence, and global leadership of China in generating a fresh global vision for humanity, in creating a new model for economic development, in forging an alternative model of global and domestic governance, in creating a new model for science and technology development, and in creating a truly cosmopolitan culture characterized by multiculturalism, interculturalism and pragmatism”; it “refers to a process of China-led global search for and a global enlightenment by an alternative mode of life for humanity on the basis of, but above and beyond, the Eurocentric model. ” (Jia, 2009).

Ameriglobalization and Chiglobalization • China has surpassed the US in economics by 15 percent, science and technology by 31 percent, and comprehensive national power by 36 percent. China’s power in national defense, global influence and the cultural industry is narrowing the gap with the US (2017). • “Chinafornia is the fluid ecosystem of entrepreneurs, students, investors, immigrants, and ideas bouncing back and forth between the Golden State and the Middle Kingdom” (Sheehan, 2017). • Chinafornia illustrates that, like the rest of the world, Ameriglobalization is feeding into Chiglobalization, mostly at the grassroots level. • Donald Trump’s presidential campaign focused on domestic affairs, and his reported handover of leadership in solving the Northeast Asia security to China may be interpreted as a pragmatic gesture to cede the baton of globalization to China. And his abandonment of the Trans-Pacific Partnership, crafted by the Obama administration to contain Chiglobalization, may hurt America’s soft power in the short term, but will probably help accelerate Chiglobalization.

Path towards Global Leadership • China is on the path towards global leadership with initiatives like “One Belt, One Road”, proposed by Chinese President Xi Jinping in 2013, that is a plan to invest $1 trillion as seed money and attract an additional $9 trillion for infrastructure construction around the world, particularly Asia. • China has a core strategy. Instead of building military bases around the world like the US, China is relying on comprehensive strategies of communication and connectivity ranging from politics to finance, from infrastructure and trade to culture and religion to construct zones of economic cooperation and centers of cultural exchanges.

Perspectives of Chiglobalization • In the meantime, China learned a lesson from the negative experience of rejecting Anglobalization and Ameriglobalization and the positive experience of embracing them later on. • Based upon the strengths of its predecessors such as the neoliberal world order, Chiglobalization could define and sustain a new wave of globalization and global governance with the Chinese accent in the 21 st century as more benign, both more equal and equitable, more open and pluralistic, more peaceful and harmonious than its predecessors. • Given China’s core value of groupism, Chiglobalization coincides with multilateralism, a kind of co-globalization, and even Chiglocalization – encompassing re-modernization and re-globalization in the form of infrastructure improvements for developed countries and brand-new modernization for developing countries. • Every nation should have a chance to ride this new wave of globalization. • http: //yaleglobal. yale. edu/content/now-globalization-chinesecharacteristics

New insights and further development of the field

Selected papers • • • Andrew Whiten, Christine A Caldwell and Alex Mesoudi. Cultural diffusion in humans and other animals Cristina Moya and Joseph Henrich. Culture–gene coevolutionary psychology: cultural learning, language, and ethnic psychology Yoshihisa Kashima. Cultural dynamics Barbara Rogoff. Culture and participation: a paradigm shift Marsella, A. (2012). Psychology and Globalization: Understanding a Complex Relationship. The Journal of Social Issues, 68(3), 454– 472.