INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS PSO Lt

INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS (PSO) Lt Col (Rtd) F Kiriago

AIM To appraise participants on the complexities of contemporary peacekeeping operations

Obective At the end of the module participants should be able to demonstrate an enhanced understanding of the contemporary peace support operations.

Outline • • • Evolution of Peace Support Operations. Concept and types of peace operations Fundamental Principles of PKO Linkages and Overlaps of activities in PSO Contemporary challenges African Peace and Security Architecture

EVOLUTION OF PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS § The spectrum of contemporary PSO has become broad and complex. § Special focus is to recognize the need for articulation of doctrinal foundations of the United Nations peace operations § New challenges posed by the shifting nature of conflict from interstate to intrastate conflict

League of Nations • League of Nations established 1919 during the First World War under Treaty of Versailles • Purpose: “to promote international cooperation and to achieve peace and security. ” • The League of Nation ceased its activities after failing to prevent the Second World War.

United Nations § The United Nation was conceived on 26 th June 1945 in similar circumstances as League of Nations § Purpose: To “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war” maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, and promote social progress, better living standards and human rights.

• The United Nations is made up of 193 Member States. • Member States come together to discuss common problems and make decisions by voting on major issues. • The UN is an impartial organization • Member States are equal. • The impartiality and universality of the United Nations are key elements of its legitimacy.

Department of Peacekeeping Operations Situation Centre Office of Operations Africa I Division Office of the Under. Secretary-General Office of Military Affairs Office of ROL and Security Institutions Public Affairs Executive Office Policy, Evaluation and Training Division Military Planning Service Police Division Peacekeeping Best Practices Current Military Operations Criminal Law and Judicial Advisory Integrated Training Service Africa II Division Europe and Latin America Division Asia and Middle East Division Force Generation Service DDR Section Mine Action Service

UN Charter • Ratified on 26 June 1945. • Currently has 111 articles and 19 chapters. • Describes the purposes, principles, membership, and organs and scope of UN activities. • Member States are bound together by the principles of the Charter. • Is an international treaty that spells out the Member States’ rights and duties. • Is the foundational document that guides all the United Nations work • Gives the UN SC primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security

Key principles of the UN charter • • Sovereign equality of all member states Peaceful settlement of disputes Restraint from use of force Non – intervention in the domestic affairs of nations (except for enforcement measures under chapter VII)

Legal Basis of the SC for PSO • Chapters VI- Pacific settlement of disputes • Chapter VII – Action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression. • Chapter VIII – Regional arrangements.

Main UN bodies • • • General Assembly Security Council Economic and Social Council International Court of Justice Secretariat & Secretary General Trusteeship Council

History of peacekeeping • UN Peacekeeping began in 1948 - UN military observers to the Middle East. • Role was to monitor the Armistice between Israel and its Arab neighbours – UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)

The early years • Cold War rivalries frequently paralyzed the SC. • Peacekeeping limited to maintaining ceasefires and stabilizing situations on the ground, providing support for political efforts to resolve conflict by peaceful means. • Unarmed MILOBs, lightly armed tps with monitoring, reporting and confidence-building roles. • Earliest armed PKO was UNEFI in 1956 to address the Suez Crisis. • 1988, UN peacekeepers were awarded Nobel Peace Prize.

Post Cold-War surge • The nature of conflicts changed from inter-State to intra-State. • The UN shifted and expanded from “traditional” missions to complex “multidimensional” missions. • Roles changed to building sustainable institutions of governance, human rights monitoring, security sector reform and DDR.

1989 - 1994 • Rapid increase in number of PKO. • SC authorized 20 new operations between 1989 and 1994, number of peacekeepers rose from 11, 000 to 75, 000. • Deployed to: - Help implement complex peace agreements. - Stabilize the security situation. - Re-organize military and police. - Elect new governments and build democratic institutions.

The mid-1990 s • A period of reassessment. • Missions were established in hostile situations - former Yugoslavia, Rwanda and Somalia - there was no peace to keep. • Warring parties failed to adhere to peace agreements. • Peacekeepers lacked adequate resources. • Lack of political support. • Civilian casualties rose. • UN Peacekeeping reputation suffered.

1999 - SG commissioned independent inquiry into UN actions in 1994 Rwanda genocide, 1993 -1995 events in Srebrenica, and circumstances that led to the UN withdrawal from Somalia.

Towards the 21 st century • New operations, new challenges. • UN introduced reform to strengthen capacity to effectively manage and sustain field operations. • UN performed more complex tasks. • 1999 UN served as the administrator of both Kosovo and in East Timor. • Assessment of UN’s ability to conduct PSO effectively - Lakhdar Brahimi (2000) • SC established large and complex PKO in a number of African countries.

The present • By 2010, UN PKO had more than 124, 000 military, police and civilian staff. • Numbers started declining - the reduction of troops in MONUSCO and the withdrawal of MINURCAT end of 2010. • Today's PKO will continue to facilitate the political process, protect civilians, assist in DDR, support elections, protect and promote human rights, and assist in restoring rule of law.

CONCEPT AND TYPES OF PEACEKEEPING § Since 1948 the UN has conducted a large number of peacekeeping operations under its charter § The process of responding to threats to international order has evolved after the Cold War. § Different types of UN PKO evolved in response to a changing international political environment and conflicts in which the SC engaged.

• 68 Peacekeeping operations deployed by UN. • 55 of the 68 since 1988. • Hundreds of thousands of military personnel, tens of thousands of UN police and other civilians from more than 120 countries participated. • More than 3, 100 fatalities from 120 countries.

Different Types of UN Peacekeeping Operations • Traditional Peacekeeping • Multi-dimensional Peacekeeping • Transitional Authority

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF UN PEACEKEEPING These principles have developed over time through experience and lessons learned: § Consent § Impartiality § Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate

Consent • All UN peacekeeping operations require the consent of the main parties to the conflict • Without consent for the mandate, the operation is peace enforcement. • The UNPKO’s role is to move the peace process forward while maintaining consent of all the parties to the conflict

Impartiality • UN peacekeeping operations must implement their mandate without favour or prejudice to any of the parties to the conflict (like a good referee). • A peacekeeping operation cannot condone actions by parties if they violate the norms and principles the UNPKO upholds. • Reasons for the action must be clearly communicated to all.

Non use of force except in self defense and defense of the mandate § Use of force permitted in self-defense & defense of mandate. § SC may authorize a mission “to use all necessary means” to defend the mandate. § Use of force permitted as a measure of last resort. § The Ro. E or Du. F clarify level of force.

Other Success Factors Credibility • A precise and achievable mandate with the resources to march. • Effective, rapid deployment. • A confident, capable and unified posture of the mission • Management of expectations

Legitimacy • Perceived legitimacy of a UN peacekeeping operation is directly related to the quality and conduct of its military, police and civilian personnel. • The behavior of peacekeeping personnel should meet the highest standards of professionalism, competence and integrity.

Promotion of Local and National Ownership • Fosters trust and cooperation. • Reinforces perceived legitimacy of the mission. • Ensures sustainability of the peace-building process. • Should include all parts of society. • All opinions need to be heard and understood.

Linkages and overlap activities in PSO The spectrum of Peace and Security Activities While United Nations peacekeeping operations are generally deployed to support a ceasefire or peace agreement, they often also play a role in peacemaking efforts. They may also be involved in early peace building activities. These activities are related.

(A Traditional View) The UN Charter Peacekeeping Peace enforcement Chap VI Article 33 Chap VII Article 42 Consent No mention of peacekeeping or peace enforcement “To maintain International peace and security” No consent required Chap VIII Regional Orgs

UN Peacekeeping statistics As of 31 August 2013 • Peacekeeping operations since 1948: 68 • Current peacekeeping operations: 15 • Current peace operations directed by DPKO: 16 (1 Special Political Mission: the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA)).

Current UN Missions

Current UN Peacekeeping missions UNTSO (Middle East) …………………. . May 1948 UNMOGIP (India and Pakistan) …. . January 1949 UNFICYP (Cyprus) …………………. . . March 1964 UNDOF (Syria) ……………June 1974 UNIFIL (Lebanon) …………. March 1978 MINURSO (Western Sahara) …………. April 1991 UNMIK (Kosovo). . . . June 1999 UNMIL (Liberia). . . September 2003 UNOCI (Cote de I’voire). . . April 2004 MINUSTAH (Haiti). . . . June 2004 UNAMID (Darfur) ……………. . July 2007 MONUSCO (DRC) …………. . . July 2010 UNISFA (Abyei) ……………June 2011 UNMISS (South Sudan) ………………. . . July 2011 MINUSMA (Mali) ……………March 2013

UN Peacekeeping Operations Peacekeeping operations since 1948……………. … 68 Current peacekeeping operations…………………. … 15 Current peace operations directed by DPKO. . …………… 16 PERSONNEL Uniformed personnel……. . ………………. . ………… 97, 369 (82, 351 troops, 13, 209 police and 1, 809 military observers) Countries contributing uniformed personnel…………. …. ………… 115 International civilian personnel (as of 30 June 2013)…………… 5, 032 Local civilian personnel (as of 30 June 2013 ………… 11, 693 UN Volunteers (as of 30 June 2013)……………… 2, 057 Total number of personnel in 15 peacekeeping operations. . … 116, 151 Total number of personnel in 16 DPKO-led operations ……… 117, 905 Total number of fatalities since 1948……………… 3, 136 FINANCIAL ASPECTS (US$) Approved budgets for the period from 1 July 2013 to 30 June 2014 About 7. 54 billion

Legal Framework of AU PSO Missions • • The Constitutive Act of the African Union. The United Nations Charter. Status of Mission Agreement (SOMA) Rules of Engagement (ROE)

African Peace and Security Architecture • The African Union (AU) was formed in Durban in July 2002, replacing the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) • Africa Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) was established by the AU to deal with the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts in Africa. • Its core organ is the AU PSC. • Offers a real prospect of African solutions for African problems. • Comprises various elements and structures that provide a comprehensive set of tools for addressing the security concerns of the continent. • Is a holistic approach to peace and security - preventive diplomacy, mediation, peacekeeping - establishment of the Panel of the Wise.

• AU adopted the Protocol for establishment of PSC in July 2002. • Protocol provides for African Standby Force (ASF) for PSC to deploy peacekeeping missions and intervene pursuant to AU Constitutive Act. • The ASF is the implementing mechanism for the PSC. • Is a multinational force empowered to intervene in serious conflicts - five regionally based brigades and a sixth formation at the AU’s hq at Addis Ababa for a combined capacity of 15, 000 -20, 000.

APSA IN PRACTICE Peace & Security Framework New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) Common African Defence and Security Policy Peace and Security Council (PSC) Mandate to Chairperson UN AGENCIES, PARTNERS/N GOs Military RECs/ Regions AU Commission PSOD REC/Region PLANELMs Pr o vid e Direct Ho. M African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) UN Agencies, partners, NGOs Structures Planning Continental Early Warning System (CEWS) APSA ASF Capabilities Military Staff Committee (MSC) African Standby Force (ASF) Panel of the Wise (PW) Organisational PS O D Civilian • Rule of Law • Civil administration • Humanitarian affairs • Good Governance • Advisors NASF WASF Mission RECs/ RMs • Standby Brigades • Rapid Deployment • Military Liaison Police Officers • Military Observers • Police • Advisors (PSC & • Gendarmerie FC) ca • Observers pa cit • Advisors (PSC & yt PC) o CASF EASF SASF

ASF Scenario Description Deployment requirement. (from mandate resolution) 1 AU/Regional military advice to a political mission. 30 days 2 AU/Regional observer mission co-deployed with a UN mission. 30 days 3 Stand-alone AU/Regional observer mission. 30 days 4 AU/Regional peacekeeping force for Chapter VI and preventive deployment missions (and peace building). 30 days 5 AU Peacekeeping force for complex multidimensional 90 days with the military peacekeeping missions, including those involving component being able to low-level spoilers. deploy in 30 days. 6 AU intervention, e. g. in genocide or humanitarian crisis situations where the international community does not act promptly. 14 days with robust military force

Objectives of AU by 2030 – “A united and integrated Africa. – an Africa with the ideals of justice and peace. – an inter-dependent and robust Africa determined to map for itself an ambitious strategy. – an Africa underpinned by political, economic, social and cultural integration which would restore to Pan-Africanism its full meaning. – an Africa able to make the best of its human and material resources, and keen to ensure the progress and prosperity of its citizens by taking advantage of the opportunities offered by a globalized world. – An Africa capable of promoting its values in a world rich in its disparities. .

To support the PSC, the following were created: • • • The Panel of the Wise. The Continental Early Warning System. The African Standby Force. The Military Staff Committee. The Peace Fund.

ASF Missions • Observer and monitoring missions • Classical PSO missions • Intervention in a Member State in response to grave circumstances • Preventative deployments • Peace building, post-conflict reconstruction, DDR • Humanitarian assistance • Any other functions as mandated by the PSC or the Assembly

Contemporary Challenges • Volatile and complex political emergencies • Complex intra state conflicts • Political will to contribute to peacekeeping in Africa by Western States • Complexities of African security complexes

Structured Security Complexes

Complexity of Security Complexes Algeria Libya Morocco Tunisia AMU Somalia Egypt Djibouti Ethiopia Eritrea Sudan IGAD Nile River Basin Mauritania Conseil de l’Entente ECOWAS CEMAC Sao Tome & Principe Cameroon Burundi* Ghana Chad Central African Republic Rwanda* Cape Verde Gabon Nigeria Gambia Equatorial Guinea DRC Benin Rep Congo Niger Togo Burkina Faso Cote d’Ivoire Angola Mali Guinea- Bissau Senegal ECCAS WAEMU Liberia Sierra Leone Guinea CILSS Mano River Union Acronyms AMU Arab Maghreb Union CBI Cross Border Initiatives CEMAC Economic & Monetary Community of Central Africa CILSS Permanent Interstate Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel COMESA Common Market for East and Southern Africa EAC East Africa Community SADC ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States IGAD Inter Governmental Authority for Development SACU Southern Africa Customs Union SADC Southern Africa Development Community WAEMU West African Economic and Monetary Union SACU COMESA Uganda* Kenya* EAC Tanzania* Mauritius* Seychelles* Comoros* Madagascar* Malawi* Zambia* South Africa Zimbabwe* Botswana Lesotho Namibia* Swaziland* IOC Reunion * CBI

OPPORTUNITIES • The establishment of the AU Commission • The creation of an African Peace and Security Architecture • Establishment of multi-level partnerships – Bilateral ( State actors) – Regional (RECs and RMs) – Multilateral (UN, EU etc)

• The need for wider political strategy to end conflict in a changed strategic environment. These changes include: – – Increased sources of insecurity Increased levels of peacekeeping demand New peace and security actors Significant reduction in resource contributions by the international community • The collective will of the continent to implement holistic conflict management strategy • The creation of mechanisms and structures to support the implementation • The establishment of strategic partnerships in – Capacity enhancement – Implementation of peace operations

KEY SUMMARY POINTS • UN has an internationally recognized mandate to maintain international peace and security. • Wherever possible the Security Council seeks peaceful means to resolve conflict. • Peacekeeping is just one of several tools available to the SC and the international community for maintaining international peace and security. • Peacekeeping often overlaps with conflict prevention, peacemaking, peace enforcement and peace building. • Peacekeeping is used to preserve and build sustainable peace where a ceasefire or peace agreement already exists, and where parties to the conflict have consented to the deployment of a peacekeeping operation.

• Peace enforcement involves the use of force at a strategic level, without the consent of the parties to the conflict. • Robust peacekeeping involves the use force at the tactical level and requires the host country’s consent for the use of force. • Both peace enforcement and robust peacekeeping require the authorization of the use of force by the Security Council. • For all three types of missions, it is the SC which provides the high level strategic direction and political guidance for the mission. • Under Secretary General of DPKO administers and provides the executive direction for all types of peacekeeping operations.

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