Intelligence What is intelligence How would you test

Intelligence What is intelligence? How would you test intelligence crossculturally?

Definitions of Intelligence Most definitions include the word knowledge Most also include problem solving Also helps in the adaptation to changing environments There are several Western approaches to intelligence Spearman, 1927 -g Thurstone, 1938— 3 intellectual skills—verbal, mathematical, spatial Sternberg, 1985— 3 aspects—analytic, creative, practical Gardner, 1983—logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily kinesthetic, personal intelligence and interpersonal intelligence

Major Debates in Intelligence What do IQ tests actually measure? How can it be show that the score was not influenced by other factors? 1921—Nat’l Academy of Sciences—massive study of intelligence nationally African Americans scored lower than whites generally Rated intellectual order of immigrants England-Holland-Denmark-Scotland-Germany-Canada. Belgium-Norway-Austria-Ireland-Turkey-Greece-Russia. Italy- Poland

More recent data… Today in US: Asian American-White-Hispanics-African American. On average, African American scores 10 -15% lower than white kids By religion, Jews score the highest Native Americans—below average verbally, but high visual-spatial skills in some groups

Cross-Cultural Work Using Western measures, average IQ in sub-Saharan Africa is about 82 (Wicherts et al, 2010) Lynn and Vanhanen (2006) examined IQ across cultures Controversial study, argue for biological/genetic causes Dark red <65, purple >105

Why? Intelligence vs. intelligent behavior Biological factors and intelligence Nativist view—all cognitive phenomena are inborn and unravel as a result of bio programming Snyderman and Rothman, 1988—asked 1000 scholars about the ethnic differences 1% always due to genetic factors 45% both genes and the environ 14% entirely environ Heredity and bio are a good part of individual differences Arthur Jensen—big proponent of innate diff in IQ between groups says that 80% of IQ is inherited Environment and intelligence—factors related to IQ Overall availability and access to resources Family climate Educational opportunities Access to books and travel General attitudes Cultural practices Presence or absence of cultural magical beliefs

Other Factors Attitudes toward testing Acquisition of skills depends on the environment SES Family factors Brazilian and Columbian street kids Birth order Flynn Effect

Still More Factors Years in school—about 2/3 of the variance in IQ scores Poverty can change the developing brain (Teicher et al, 2002) Witnessing domestic violence can reduce IQ (Delaney-Black et al, 2002) Cross-national IQ scores are related to low birth weight and proportion of agricultural workers (Barber, 2005) Exposure to parasites (Eppig et al, 2010)—both developing the brain and fighting parasites take a lot of energy

Cultural Differences in the Meaning of Intelligence Many languages have no word that means intelligence Mandarin—a character that means “good brain and talented” and is associated with effort, social responsibility Baganda of East Africa—obugezi—mental and social skills that make a person steady, cautious, friendly Djerma-Songhi of West Africa—akkal—intelligent, know-how, social skills Baoule—n’glouele—mentally alert but willing to volunteer without being asked

Language and Communication Lexicon—vocabulary of a language Syntax and grammar—rules that govern word forms and how words are strung together to form meanings Phonology—systems of rules that govern how words should sound Semantics—what words mean Pragmatics—rules that govern how language is used and understood in social contexts Phonemes—smallest and most basic units of sound in a language Morphemes—smallest and most basic units of meaning in a language

Language Acquisition Some aspects are innate, others learned Not just imitation 1950 s—Berko—showed that kids learn rules to generate and test hypotheses Overregularization—goed instead of went Different cultures teach language diff Kaluli of Papua New Guinea—believe children won’t learn language or conversation skills unless explicitly taught Samoa-no real language instruction—kids actually learn from older sibs Chomsky— 1967—language acquisition device

Language Differences Dyslexia-- Firth et al 2001 Looked at English, French, Italian writing and dyslexia—in English there are 1120 ways of rep of 40 phonemes, Italian-33 graphemes for 25 phonemes Some words exist in some languages but not others Wharf, 1956— 3 words for snow in Eskimo, only one in English Literal equivalents may not have same connotations Self/other referents

Pragmatics Collectivists More likely to drop pronouns Japan—rate intimacy higher for words related to ingroups (coworkers, students) Also use “yes” as a regulator Individualists (American)—greater self-disclosure Differences in apologies Americans preferred explanation, Taiwan preferred compensation Japan—more direct, extreme apology, Americans prefer more indirect, less extreme

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Speakers of different languages think differently because of the differences in their languages Supporting Research 1958—Navajo vs. English—Carroll and Casagrande Navajo has words that indicate very specialized ways of handling different shaped objects and found that Navajo kids are more likely to use shapes to categorize 1954—Brown and Lenneberg Accuracy with which a color is remembered is related to how easily coded it is Research against More recently… Work on color being biologically- based regardless of linguistic diff in labeling Bottom line—some support for this theory, but some areas may be too bio based

Bilingualism Knowledge of more than 1 language can increase cognitive flexibility Foreign language processing difficulty— negative impressions (lower IQ) because people speaking in 2 nd language take more time to process info Foreign language effect—temporary decline in thinking ability of people who are using a foreign language in which they are less proficient

Personal Space Hall, 1966 Work on proxemics—the interrelated observation and theories of man’s use of space as a function of culture 4 distance areas Intimate-0 -18 in. reserved for our closest and most trusted friends Personal distance— 1. 5 -4 ft. —small protective sphere or bubble that an organism maintains between self and others— conversations with people with whom we are comfortable Social distance— 4 -12 ft. —conversations with strangers and to conduct business Public distance—begins at 12 ft. —famous public figures, speeches, formal occasions

More on Personal Space Early studies—Russo and Sommer, 1966— unsuspecting students left the library more quickly the closer a stranger sat to them Hall predicted that people from contact cultures (cultures emphasizing touch and close contact) would interact at closer distances Arabs—touch more, more visual contact, face to face orientation, less distance between each other. Speak loudly—believe loud is sincere, soft is devious. Arabs stand close enough to smell each other’s breath Latin Americans—small physical distances US—medium Japan—large Sussman and Rosenfeld, 1992

Nonverbal Behavior Purposes Illustrators—nonverbal behavior that highlights aspects of the words we speak Adaptors/manipulators—all cultures have etiquette about these Emblems—nonverbals that convey a message by themselves Only a small fraction of the meaning people get in an interaction comes from spoken words. When speech and nonverbals don’t agree, nonverbal is dominant

Gestures Many are culture specific Some cultures are very expressive with gestures as illustrators—Italian, Jewish Others—Japan, Thai—more reserved Get used to what we see with respect to gesticulation Two types Referential—meaning can be derived from the gesture itself Conventional—meaning is dependent on culturespecific codes and conventions

Eye Contact CC—among people of unequal status, looking directly in the eye is more common in Anglo. Saxon cultures than in Latino or Native American cultures Arabs—more eye contact Asians—less eye contact US—middle

Encountering a Stranger A stranger is simultaneously within (physically present) and without (not acquainted)—Simmel, 1950 Immediate result of being in a new situation—lack of security Physique, dress, mannerisms, speech may indicate that a person belongs to a different group People may believe that stranger’s group follows a different lifestyle May worry that interacting with stranger is disloyal May believe that stranger’s group is aggressive toward their own Probable outcome: avoidance Unless—role constraints (customer, guest, teacher, employer) May be curious or open to novel experiences Find stranger physically attractive Come from a culture that encourages accommodation of diversity

Identity Cues Gender, age, race, attractiveness, body shape, babyfacedness, clothing, proxemics, body odor, gaze behavior, speech volume & speed, fluency, accentedness Allows us to use stereotypes and make snap judgments Ingroup or not? Certain categories are universally salient Distinctiveness of a person’s behavior Prototypicality Deviations from normal speech in terms of accent, syntax, or grammar

Intercultural Communication 2 processes Encoding—process by which people select the mode by which we’ll communicate Decoding—process by which receive signals from an encoder and translate those into meaning Signals—specific words and behavior sent in a communication Messages—meaning that is intended or received Uncertainty is a hallmark of intercultural communication Misattributions

Context Hall, 1976 High vs. low context cultures High—much of the information is transmitted in the physical context, implicit messages; rely less on spoken language Low-much of the information is in explicit code LC countries are used to very explicit contracts, but this can be insulting in HC cultures

Speech Accommodation May be one way or mutual Or, if groups are antagonistic toward each other or if group membership is salient, divergence of speech may occur Those who speak in second language may be assumed to have preferences more like those of 2 nd language (Bond, 1985) And 2 nd language speaker may have cognitive shifts when speaking

Stumbling Blocks to Effective Communication Assumptions of similarities Language differences Nonverbal misinterpretations Preconceptions and stereotypes Tendency to evaluate High anxiety or tension

Intercultural Communication Competence Gudykunst, 1993 Motivational factors Knowledge factors Skill factors Basically, knowledge and skills must be combined with openness and flexibility Intercultural sensitivity Bennett, 1979, 1988 6 stages—developmental continuum of ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism Denial Defense Minimization of impact or importance Acceptance Adaptation Integration of plurality

Emotions Affect—an evaluative response that includes a combination of physiological arousal, subjective experience, and behavioral expression William James (1884) Emotion is embedded into bodily experience physical experience leads person to feel aroused and arousal stimulates the subjective experience of emotion James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard—alternative outlook—various life situations can simultaneously elicit both an emotional experience and bodily responses

Two-Factor Theory Must perceive stimulus 1) Must experience physiological arousal 2) Must label that sensation

Facial Expression of Emotion Darwin --facial expressions of emotions are evolutionarily adaptive and biologically innate Margaret Mead and others--must be learned In 1960 s, psych began universality studies Initial studies—Ekman and colleagues showed photos of facial expressions to observers in 5 countries—US, Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Japan —label expressions Ekman et al repeated the study in New Guinea with 2 preliterate tribes Nonhuman primates and congenitally blind infants also support the universality theory Smiling is universally understood to be happy

Cultural Display Rules Facial expression of emotion seems to be universal but we are often clueless about how to interpret emotions of people in other cultures Different rules govern how to express emotions Most rules are designed to restrain emotions. Can assess emotion expression by frequency and intensity Variations in expression of sadness Japan—often smile when informed of a loss—don’t want to offend bearer of bad news Tahiti—report feeling tired in response to a loss Bedouins (Egyptian desert)—crying is weakness

Experience of Emotion Southern Europeans (hot blooded)—more increase in BP in response to joy, sadness, fear than Northern Europeans But response is similar cc—ie. , embarrassment causes increased body temperature

Emotion Appraisal Both universal and culturally specific Relative intensity But—cultures vary in how intense they rate emotion in others Americans rate emotions as more intense than Japan But Americans rate subjective (internal) experience as less intense than the Japanese Appears that Americans exaggerate external display attributions

Happiness Three dimensions moderate effects of happiness on wellbeing Arousal Chinese/Chinese Americans value low-arousal positive states more than high-arousal states Discrepancies between low-arousal actual and ideal states are more predictive of depression in Chinese. Social engagement Japanese value socially engaged emotions. US values socially disengaged In Japanese, socially engaged emotions predict well-being, in US, socially disengaged emotions do Emphasis on personal hedonic experience In North America, experiences linked to personal contexts are linked to better outcomes In East Asian cultures, hedonic experiences are not linked as strongly to well-being

Anger Several universal anger provoking antecedents But terms for anger aren’t equivalent English—involves letting the other person know Ifaluk (Pacific region) “song”—indicates an attempt to change behavior of the offending person —may be aggressive but may also include attempted suicide or refusal to eat Collectivist culture—anger is a threat to integrity of society. Individualist right to independence and self-expression Utko Inuit—virtual absence of anger.

Emotion Antecedents Cultural similarities— Baucher and Brandt, 1981—asked US and Malaysians to generate situations that cause anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, or surprise Results replicated in Korea and Samoa Scherer et al--cc Happiness—relationships with friends, temporary meeting with friends, achievement Sadness—relationships and death Buunk and Hupka, 1987— 7 countries—flirting elicits jealousy Differences in antecedents Fear—US—strangers, achievement; Japan—Traffic, relationships Anger—more commonly due to strangers in Japan than US or Europe Latent and manifest antecedents

Culture Specific Emotions German—schadenfreude—pleasure from another’s misfortune Japanese-itoshii—longing for an absent loved one Amae—dependence between 2 people English—frustration doesn’t translate into all Arabic languages Gidjngali—Aust. Aborigine—one word conveys terror, horror, dread, apprehension, timidity, fear, and shame Location of emotion US—heart and gut Japan—gut Chewong of Malay—liver Tahiti—intestines

Motivation A condition that initiates, activates, or maintains individual’s goaldirected behavior Origin is biological Need—a motivated state caused by physiological or psychological deprivation Drives—condition that directs an organism to satisfy a need Arousal theories of motivation—people seek to maintain optimal levels of arousal by actively changing their exposure to arousing stimuli Psychoanalytic explanations…pleasure principle vs. reality principle Humanistic theories—focus on human dignity, individual choice, and self -worth Self-actualization Maslow’s hierarchy Physiological Safety needs Belonging and love needs Esteem needs Self-actualization Learning and motivation Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

Need for Achievement Social need that directs people to constantly strive for excellence, success, influence, and accomplishment Mc. Lelland (1958)—this motivation is learned during childhood Linked to social norms Confucian dynamism –Japan and Hong Kong Individualist-success vs. collectivist-success

Aggression Aggressive motivation—desire to harm or injure others Aggression—a sequence of behaviors, the goal response of which is the injury to the person toward whom it is directed Avoid using crime as a definition

Problems with Using Crime as Definition Killing an infant is homicide, right? Minturn & Sashak (1982)—study of HRAF Found infanticide in 53% of cases in mostly non-industrial societies They suggest that infanticide is best termed “terminal abortion” Reasons given are very similar to abortion (illegitimacy, excess children) Almost always done before the naming ceremony that announces babies to the community Killing an adult also varies Among the Kapouku of New Guinea, punishment for killing a person varies according to whether or not the killing occurred in the village or tribe. Intent didn’t matter. Wife beating is not a crime in many cultures. Afghanistan— 2009 controversial law about marital rape Protested around the world Was repealed, but new law is very rarely enforced

Incidence Rates of aggression vary considerably In some cultures, aggression only occurs when alcohol is involved (Finland) or honor is at stake (Turkey) Within cultures, aggression ranges from very low (Iceland, Japan) to very high (Peru, Nigeria) Murder rates Norway. 8/100, 000 China 1. 2/100, 000 Finland 2. 5/100, 000 US 5. 2/100, 000 South Africa 36. 5/100, 000 Venezuela 46. 2/100, 000 Jamaica 59. 5/100, 000

Simbu and Semai Simbu of New Guinea (belongs to Australia) Despite prohibitions by Australia, they engage in frequent warfare Very + attitudes about aggression Admire the most aggressive Sex segregation and male domination Currently campaigning to have women in office High status: males, violent, competitive, loyal to men’s group When fight started, everyone joined in Frustration because of shortage of food, no confidence in justice system, no chance of equitable distribution of resources Semai—Malaysian rain forest Very negative attitudes toward aggression Believe only bad people are violent Abundant resources Associate great danger with being alone

Truk and Tahiti Nisbett (1990)—another two culture comparison Both Truk and Tahiti are in Pacific. Truk fish in the dangerous open sea Tahiti fish in safer lagoons with plentiful fish Truk—need to be aggressive, fearless to fish in open sea Males are violent fighters, compete with each other in physical contests, have many love affairs, sire children early, women are submissive, men are protective. Tahiti—peaceful, cooperative. Not overprotective of women. No requirement to protect honor. Men should be passive and submissive, ignore slights.

Situational Variables When resources are limited and basic motives are aroused, aggression is common Large cities are more violent than rural areas— in part due to deindividuation. Less aggression in democracies Shortage of resources and increased rates of unpredictable events increases aggression Observing aggression increases aggression

Physiological Conditions and Aggression Some evidence that any kind of strong arousal may facilitate aggression Heat and humidity Noise, pain, insult, frustration, hunger, exposure to sexual stimuli Hot climates are more aggressive than cold ones—true both seasonally and spatially Eskimos feel contempt for white people because they “hunt each other like animals”

Other Factors Exposure to the media, but not everywhere Inequality of opportunity R/P ratio—ratio of GNP controlled by top and bottom 10% of the income distribution Norway 6. 1 United States 15. 9 South Africa 33. 1 Honduras 59. 1 Testosterone—not as big as you might think

Gender and Sexuality Gender stereotypes Williams and Best (1982 High degree of pancultural agreement Also, male traits were viewed as more + in some countries (Japan, South Africa), females more + in others (Italy, Peru) Male traits—generally stronger and more active Children agreed with adults Then looked at sex role ideology Women had more modern views More modern/egalitarian cultures tended to be More developed More urban More Christian More northern latitudes

Men and Women Lot of consensus across cultures about men being more dominant, having greater autonomy, being more aggressive, being more achievement oriented, possessing greater strength and endurance Common female traits—being more deferent, providing nurturance, demonstrating more affiliation Males—more likely to initiate sexual activity Females—more likely to express conformity and compliance

Gender Differences Many things are attributed to gender that are actually due to something else. Cognitive differences Men outperform women at spatial tasks in US However, women do better on spatial tasks in cultures that are loose, nomadic, hunting & gathering Men better in tight, sedentary, agriculturally-based cultures In agricultural cultures, men need to do heavy work family maintenance tasks go to girls Greater role specialization leads to female preoccupy with child-rearing activities In hunt/gather cultures, there is a higher valuation of women’s activities

Personality and Gender Aggression Males account for a disproportionate amt of violent crime in both industrialized and nonindustrialized countries Males—more aggressive in every culture for which we have data Anxiety and self-esteem In Sweden and Hungary, but not Japan, girls report more anxiety than boys in response to hypothetical situations Overall, boys seem to perceive themselves as more competent than girls, but this varies

Culture and Sexuality Sex culture Varies widely Universal taboo—incest Nearly universal—masturbation Chastity—not as important in countries such as Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Holland But in other cultures—China, Iran, India—chastity is important for women Labor However, even in more traditional sex cultures, some non -traditional beliefs exist Rathus et al 1993— 70% of Chinese respondents didn’t denounce extramarital affairs, 50% engage in premarital sex, 14% of urban Chinese women have extramarital affairs

Homosexuality Western soc tend to accept homosexuality In the rest of the world, varies CC facts about homosexuality Never predominant or >5% Generally frowned on Always > in males Always present Societies with polygamy—low on homosexuality Lowest in hunter/gather, middle levels in agricultural societies, highest in industrialized Increased density of population is related to higher levels of homosexuality Many countries, is a crime

Other Interesting Things Kissing is unknown in some African and South American cultures Among some Arctic cultures, it is normal and hospitable to offer your wife to a guest Attraction Men almost universally prefer good looks Women prefer earning potential Both men and women want someone kind and understanding 5 types of menstrual taboos in the HRAF Ban on sexual intercourse Restrictions on activities and contacts with other people Taboos against contact with men’s ritual equipment or weaponry Taboos on handling or cooking food Total seclusion in a special hut Of 156 cultures, 8 had no bans or taboos; 19 had all types of taboos

Female Genital Mutilation 80 million women today Infibulations—removal of labia minora, stitching together of labia majora by thorns or thread Typically by a midwife on girls 5 -11 28 countries—primarily Islamic in Africa, but some in middle east and far east Not required by Koran, but also true that no major Islamic religious figures have spoken against it 1995—International Conference on the Status of Women in Beijing—declared FGM as violation of human rights 1996—Board of Immigration ruled that woman from Togo (1 st day of class) was due political asylum to prevent fgm

Romantic Love On the other hand, Levine et al 1995 asked students in 11 nations, “If a man/woman had all the other qualities you desired, would you marry this person if you weren’t in love with him/her? ”— Respondents in India, Pakistan, Thailand were more likely to answer yes-% yes What do people mean by being in love? Shaver, Wu and Schwartz, 1991—young people in US link love with happiness, but China linked love with sadness Rothbaum & Tsang—compared US and Chinese love songs—Chinese songs had more references to sadness, future, and context in which love occurs, but US songs focused more directly on object of love Love Attitude Scale of Munro and Adams Looked at how strongly respondents endorse 3 dimensions Romantic power (love as a powerful force) Romantic idealism (love is the essence of life) Conjugal love (love demands careful consideration, has a calming love) No clear pattern emerging from scale

Love and Marriage Generally, romantic love is valued highly in less traditional cultures with few strong extended family ties and less valued in cultures where extended family ties reinforce the relationship between marriage partners Vaidyanathan and Naidoo, 1991—found Asian Indian immigrants to Canada show generational changes in attitudes toward love and marriage Gupta and Singh looked at couples in Jaipur, India—some married for love, others were arranged Couples who married for love were only in love for first 5 years or so but were less in love than arranged marriages after 5 years and much so after 10 years Arranged marriages are more common in collectivist cultures India, Pakistan, China India “How can you let emotional youths decide something that affects so many people? ” Japan— 1993— 24% arranged; today about 10% Marriage meetings

Choosing a Mate Buss et al 1990— 37 samples, 10, 000 people 6 continents, 5 islands, 33 countries Listed potential mate characteristics Both genders rated “kind and understanding” 1 st Intelligent 2 nd Exciting personality 3 rd Healthy 4 th Religious 5 th Women generally valued good earning capacity higher than men Men valued physical appearance more Overall a lot of similarity CC Except chastity—North European countries don’t seem to care but groups in China, India, Iran really value chastity

Attractiveness US research—people who are good looking are ascribed characteristics like being sensitive, kind, sociable, pleasant, likable, interesting Greater height for men Neat dressers—viewed as conscientious CC attractiveness Different things are viewed as attract, which affects impression formation Japan—attractiveness is related to large eyes, small mouths and small chins Korea—large eyes, small and high noses, thin, small faces China—moon shaped face

Development and Socialization—how we learn and internalize the rules and patterns of a behavior that are affected by a culture Enculturation—the process by which children adopt the manners and ways of their culture (different from acculturation—learning a new culture) Socialization agents—people, institutions, orgs that exist to help ensure that socialization occurs—parents, peers, sibs, extended family Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems approach Ontogenic development—individual Microsystem—immediate surrounding such as family, school, peers Mesosystem—links between Microsystems Exosystem—contexts that indirectly affect kids Macrosystem—culture, religion, society Children are active participants in their own socialization

Social Class and Socialization In large, complex cultures, there at least 4 levels. Wealthy upper class—can afford luxuries Comfortable middle class-pleasant lifestyle Struggling working class—uncertainty about job stability and necessities Frustrated underclass Other markers… Parents from different backgrounds emphasize different values Class differences are stronger than cultural ones Why class? Expectations about the world What one is comfortable with (if obedience is emphasized, kids may be more comfortable with highly supervised jobs)

Guided Participation People who know about a task or skill adjust behavior to guide children in learning about a culture India—right hand is eating, left hand is for hygiene—some kids learn through observation, others need someone to, say, hold left hand down when eating

Temperament A characteristic behavioral style or typical pattern of responding to events in the environ Easy Difficult child Slow to warm up Heritability—about 50% for extraversion and neuroticism Goodness of fit—match bet environ and child’s temperament Masai of Kenya—difficult children survive better in times of drought cry more, attract more attention Dutch parents vs American parents—Am parents are more likely to see difficulty as inherent in kids. Dutch see it is environmental Malay parents described babies as less regular in attn, less adaptable, lower threshold for responses to stimuli

Attachment Emotional bond between child and caretakers that allows children to feel secure and to know to whom they can turn in threatening situations Process of attachment seems similar across cultures 3 types of attach styles—securely attached, anxious/avoidant , anxious resistant

Attachment Patterns A/A US 21% China 25% Germany 35% Great Brit 22% Israel 7% Sweden 22% A/R 14% 25% 9% 3% 29% 4% SA 65% 50% 56% 75% 64% 75%

Parenting Each day, 750, 000 individuals become new parents Parenting styles—Baumrind, 1971, 1993 Permissive, authoritarian, authoritative—each assoc with kid behavior So, we have to look at specific behaviors and beliefs Richman et al compared Gusii of Kenya and Am mothers—found that G held and soothed babies more, but looked at and talked to them less Why might this be? Infant mortality is high and hold and soothing increases chance of survival Belief that language isn’t understood by children until age 2 Culture teaches to avoid direct eye contact US believes playpen helps teach independence US believes language learning should begin early Mothers vs. fathers Spanking—leads to aggression and anxiety cc—Lansford et al, 2005— 6 countries China, Sweden, Italy, Thailand, India, Kenya Mothers in Thailand—least likely to physically discipline children, Kenya—most More frequent use of discipline was less strongly assoc with child aggression and anxiety when it was perceived as being more culturally accepted, but physical discipline was also associated with more aggression and anxiety regardless of cultural acceptance

Grandparenthood Most research in US Japan—traditionally much respected—grandmothers wore red to show their status. Filial piety (respect) was key Undergoing big change now Decrease in % of elderly living with family 44% in 1955 were extended family households 15% by 1985 Grandparents believe their status is eroding China In 80 s— 40% of rural and 24% of urban families were 3 generation families 4 -2 -1 problem Falbo, 1991 --found no – consequences (like spoiling) for kids with grandparents in house in fact, educated grandparents helped kids academically But many consider son’s children their true grandchildren vs ‘outside’ grandkids

Adolescence 17 nations in Europe, NA, and Asia What are adolescents primary concerns? 30 studies in 14 countries Family, education, self-concept Turkey—personal future, relations with others, identity Singapore—succeeding in school, getting a good job, general concern for future 3 major domains of concern Major normative life events (career, established a family) Non-normative life events related to parents (death, divorce) Global events (nuclear war, AIDS, terrorism) But adolescents from traditional cultures were somewhat more concerned about family issues Peer influences Specific behavior varies eg. , Adolescents in Greece and Italy drink 2 x as much as in Ireland

Education 8 th TIMSS—Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study—most recent, 2007 grade Global Rank Math Science Singapore Taiwan South Korea Japan Hong Kong Hungary England Czech Republic Russia Slovenia United States Lithuania Australia Sweden Armenia Italy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 18 593 598 597 570 572 517 513 504 512 501 508 506 491 499 480 567 561 553 554 530 539 542 539 530 538 520 519 515 511 488 495

Education Differences in math begin to show by 1 st grade Why? Not biology. No differences in IQ have been found. Social and cultural factors Language—Japanese language indicates value of numbers – 210 -1 versus our 21—at a young age, kids make fewer errors in counting School systems Schools reflect what a culture thinks is important both now and for future success Teaching reflects location Pulawat of Micronesia—learn math through navigation Hours in school--# of days/yr and hours/day and % time on math

More Social and Cultural Factors Parental and familial values Am value innate ability, China and Japan—value effort Fundamental attribution error issues Chao, 1996—Chinese mothers of preschoolers convey high value on education self-sacrifice for children’s success Attitudes and appraisals of students Pang, 1991—reported Asian Am kids had higher desire to please parents , higher parental pressure and higher parental support than Euro Am kids Attributional styles Teaching styles Chinese and Japanese teachers spend a greater % of time working with the whole class than Am teachers use praise, Japanese use mistakes as lessons

Cognitive Development Piaget 0 -2 2 -6 6 -12 12 on sensorimotor—object permanence preoperational—dev of language, use of symbols concrete—reversibility, conservation formal—hypotheticals, abstracts Evaluation Criticisms in the West Underestimates children’s competence Age norms don’t fit the data Neglects social factors Theory describes but doesn’t explain Ignores post adolescent dev But…a sig impact in the West

Piaget Cross-Culturally Infancy—sensorimotor period least studied of 4 cc. Childhood Early studies found a distinct adv for Western kids Kamara, 1977 pointed out three flaws The study of thinking depends on language, but most researchers had little knowledge of language they were studying P favored clinical interviews, but these studies used tasks req little language to explain thinking Birth dates weren’t always available—estimates were off by as much as 2 years Mexican pottery makers’ kids—develop conservation earlier

Formal Operations Adolescence Some researchers (Byrnes, 1988, Shea, 1985) think some individuals in some cultures will never dev this This assumes scientific reasoning in this way is valued by all cultures in the same way No/little formal operations in studies in Rwanda, New Guinea, some others

Moral Development Kohlberg’s Theory of Morality Preconventional—compliance with rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards Conventional—conformity to rules that are defined by others’ approval or society’s rules “It is against the law. ” Postconventional—on the basis of individual principles and conscience Influential in Western psychology, but challenged by Gilligan as biased toward the male view Indeed many studies of women and other cultures find that they operate as adolescents Buddhist monks (Huebner & Garrod, 1993)—reach stage 2, maybe stage 4 by mature adulthood China—and presumably other collectivist cultures—more interested in interconnectedness and interdependence

Other Models Distributive justice Need, equity, equality Sweden—need based US—equity—Protestant work ethic India—exchanging helping behavior for helping behavior is a moral obligation, not a choice Erikson— 8 stages of dev Works as a framework But less useful for CC experimentation Strongly values individualism Helpful instead to look at culturally identified life tasks— self-generated themes—more emic approach