Important Hindu Religious Symbols Om or Aum

Important Hindu Religious Symbols

Om or Aum Made of three Sanskrit letters: Aa, Au, and Ma u When combined, they make the sound of AUM or Om—the most important symbol in Hinduism. u This symbol actually represents Brahman or the absolute.

Swastika Second in importance only to the OM u It is not a letter or syllable but a pictorial picture character in the shape of a cross which, when branches are bent at right angles and facing in a clockwise direction, represents the eternal nature of the Brahman.

Purnakumbha (Earthen Pot) u Full of water and with fresh mango leaves and a coconut atop it— generally placed as the chief deity or by the side of the deity u The pot symbolizes mother earth— the water-giver of life—the leaves life, and the coconut divine consciousness.

The Lotus The holiest of flowers for the Hindu u The lotus is representative of the true soul of an individual—also a symbol of creation.

I. Generalizations of Indian Religion A. It is complex and indefinable—no creeds 1. Indian religion is given to a functional definition of religion and emphasizes evolutionary change 2. Hinduism can be considered more of a league of religions, than a single religion 3. It seems not to want any boundary around it.

B. It is a highly inclusive religious system. 1. May believe anything or nothing 2. Room for all types of souls C. It is a system of rationalism and esoteric wisdom. 1. One must go to the wisdom of the ages, a metaphysical view of history. 2. Ultimately all is question of knowledge. 3. Sin is delusion, maya is sin or delusion.

D. By Tradition it is ethnic-centered 1. To be Indian is to be Hindu 2. It is a nationalistic religion

E. Spirit of Indian Philosophy 1. Chief mark is its concentration upon the spiritual. 2. Intimate relationship of philosophy and life, practical applications of philosophy to life: Truth must be lived. 3. Has introspective attitude and introspective approach to reality. 4. Most philosophies idealistic 5. Requires extensive use of reason, but intuition is accepted as the only method through which ultimate truth can be known 6. Stresses Sruti, or acceptance of authority

II. Strands of Indian Religion A. Understanding the development of literature helps to understand the historical development. 1. Each piece of writing over-shadows another piece. 2. Each culture is produced by its religious literature. 3. The oldest document represents mixture of thought of the invading Aryans.

B. Word darsana, usually translated “philosophy”, in Sanskrit means “seeing” or “experiencing”—all systems follow in two main divisions: 1. astika—the orthodox 2. nastika—Buddhism and Jainism, which reject the authority of the Vedas

C. Divisions of Hindu thought through its literature 1. Vedic period— 2500 -600 BCE 2. Epic period— 600 BCE-200 CE, also the beginning of the rival schools; development of bhakti, Gita, beginning of 6 darsanas 3. Sutra period— 200 CE—systematic treatises of the various schools were written 4. Scholastic period--? -1700 CE, commentators on the Sutras

a Rishi

D. Historical Development of Indian Thought 1. Brahmanism-Vedic period— 2500 -500 BCE a. Pre-Aryan— 2500 -1500 BCE (1) Earliest religious thought is deduced from archaeological evidence through seals, figurines and other such artifacts.

(2) Pre-Aryan or Dravidian culture is known through ruins of two cities, Harappa and Mohenjodaro, which seemed preoccupied with fertility symbols (figurines of pregnant females, stone phallic symbols) which seem to suggest worship of the Mother Goddess and the worship of a divinity similar to Shiva; usually associated with a bull often represented as a phallic symbol. Some seals point to religious motifs found in Mesopotamia, such as the Gilgamesh legend. b. Aryanism— 1500 -500 BCE

Harrappan Artifacts

Priest-King Male Head

Mohenjodaro Great Bath Mohenjodaro Street

The Indo-Aryans (Europeans)

I. Early History A. Around 2000 BCE a series of migrations began from the area north of the Black Sea B. The settlers eventually covering most of Europe, the Northern part of the Near East and the Indian sub – continent C. The study of this migration beginning with a study of the Indo. Aryan languages—from the ancient Sanskrit to languages of modern Europe

D. Early Indo-European mythology 1. According to some scholars these early people would reject the more popular sky-god in favor of a tripartite division of divine power—which would in turn reflect the social structures of the people a. A magical-legal function b. A warrior function c. The various functions surrounding fecundity

2. This tripartite division would lead to an emphasis of three main deities a. There seems to be a tendency to divide the function between two deities (1) One deity would be threatening and indifferent to the fate of humanity (2) One deity would be concerned with the proper ordering of human life and society

b. The warrior deity is one of ambiguity (1) As a warrior he must be great in battle in order to protect society and the cosmos (2) But as a result of his victory his rage may be turned on creation itself and must be placated by sacrifice and ritual 3. The theme is found in the mythologies of the Indo-Aryans with some variations

Vedic Gods and Goddesses

Earliest evidence for Indo. Aryan mythology comes from the Rig-Veda, written at the end of the 2 nd century BCE by the Aryans who “invaded” northern India

Indra

I. He is lord of the heavens; the most popular and powerful of the Vedic deities II. He rides a white elephant called Airavata and has the power to control lightening

IV. He had many battles with demons; the most famous was the slaying of Vrtasura A. He killed the demon of the dark skies (clouds) with his weapon (lightening) B. He released the cows (waters) that were held in captivity by the demon

V. Prone to drinking soma which caused him to lose control of himself VI. He is more like a king of the earth than the heavens VII. In the Kena Upanishad we read that he was the only god to have gone nearest to Brahman and was to know Him as Brahman—this gave him the right to become the rulers of heavens

VIII. He is usually shown with four arms and riding on a white elephant IX. He is sometimes shown with his wife, Sachidevi X. With the emergence of devotional Saivism and Bhagavatism his importance declined

XI. Some scholars believe that he prefigures Krishna

Varuna I. There are signs that he is an omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent, and compassionate God II. He is also a precursor of Brahman III. He is the ruler of the world order (rita) Rama & Varuna

IV. He is the supreme God who controls justice V. He has innumerable spies (rays of light)—thus he knows what goes on all over the world VI. He lost much of his importance as Indra became more prominent— he was relegated to the position of a dikpala or ruler of a quarter (western hemisphere) and lord of the oceans and waters

VII. He is usually depicted as the rider of a chariot drawn by seven swans and has four hands and an umbrella over his head—suggesting his lordship over aquatic life

Agni I. The chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice, the hortar, who lavishes wealth and dispels the darkness II. He is appointed by Manu as the priest III. Often invoked along with Indra, with whom he shares the passion for soma drink

IV. Agni was the earliest Angiras, a Seer V. Aryans were aware of his destructive ability, as he sets the forests aflame VI. In images, he is depicted with two heads, long flowing hair, a pot belly, six eyes, seven hands, four horns, and three legs.

VII. His seven hands represent the seven flames and the three legs represent the three worlds which he reigns; the pot belly denotes his love for rich oily food VIII. His vehicle is the Ram

IX. As the fire god, Agni he consumes the sacrifice and, as priest, presents it to the gods above X. He is also the element that binds together the three worlds, in heaven he is born over again as the sun, in the atmosphere he is kindled by the waters, on earth he is kindled by the hands of humanity

Rudra and Rudras I. Rudra is a militant god of storms and lightening and a “provider of medicines” II. He is a fierce looking god, well built and golden in color, with braided hair of “firm limbs, multiform, strong, tawny who adorns himself with bright gold decorations”

III. He wields the thunder bolt, bow and arrow, and sends down streaks of lightening shaking the worlds, making people nervous with fear IV. Sometimes the hymns refer to not just one Rudra but a group of Rudras eleven in number—some suggest this is a symbolic reference to the ten vital breaths

Mitra I. A god of the heavens, like Varuna II. Together they uphold the law, causes the cows to stream, the plants to flourish, and send down the rain-flood III. Both are adityas and often invoked together

IV. Mitra stirs men to action and sustains both earth and heaven V. Mitra and Varuna are guardians of the world, who sit in a gold hued chariot from day break and behold the infinity

Vishnu I. In the Rig Veda, he is a minor god, one of the adityas II. Like the Vishnu of later days, he is a lover and protector of devotees in whose loved mansion all god loving creatures live happily.

III. He is a god of three strides who upholds the threefold existence, the earth, the heaven, and all living creatures

Usha I. Usha is dawn, the daughter of the sky, lady of the light, who rouses all life II. She is borned on a hundred chariots, she yokes her steed before the arrival of the sun and is never late

III. She brings not only light, but hope, happiness, riches, and all the good things IV. She is a goddess of light and beauty, whom the Rishis of old time invoked for their protection and help

Soma I. Soma is the god of inspiration, the intoxicant who stirs the minds, lures the gods and brings them to the place of worship II. One of the most popular of the Rigvedic hymns, the entire 9 th Mandala is dedicated to him

III. Also known as the Lord of the speech (Vachspati), because of his intoxicating influence on the movement of speech

Asvins I. Twin deities who origins is shrouded in myth II. They have healing and curative powers III. They are said to descent to earth three times a day to help humankind with their restorative and curative powers

Maruts I. They are powerful and destructive storm gods, who lash the world from end to end, make the mountains rock, rend the forest-kings apart, make the earth tremble and drench the earth with heavy rains II. Considered to be the progeny of Rudra

Rta I. He is the rhythmic pattern of the universe—the orderly way in which the world regulates itself II. He determines the usual paths by which the heavenly objects, the sun, the moon, the stars, the nine planets, conduct themselv

Yama I. Yama is the god of justice and ruler of the dead and departed who go the region of hell II. Two fierce dogs with four eyes and wide nostrils, look on men and guard the pathway the leads the world of Yama

III. He is the master of knowledge and taught young Nachiketa the secrets of Brahman, fire sacrifice, and immortality IV. His image is shown as riding a he-buffalo, carrying a mace as his weapon and holding a noose, using the noose to drag the deceased beings to the hells

Adityas Varuna, Vishnu, and Mitre plus a number of minor deities are referred to as Adityas—children of the boundless goddess Aditi (ancient mother-earth? )

Danavas The Danavas were the children of Danu (restrainer) and were foes of the Adityas a. The most important one being the great dragon Vritra b. He would eventually be destroyed by Inda with his thunderbolt—thereby freeing the cosmic waters and making possible the creation

The mythologies will be in a constant flux over the centuries and some minor deities in the Rig-Veda will become important in later writings 1 Prajapati would come to replace Varuna as arbiter of the cosmic order a. By “heating” himself, Prajapati would bring into being the hierarchy of the universe through his sweat or semen b. He would establish himself as the “self-sacrifice” that would be perpetuated through the priestly class

Summary

I. The Vedas show a ritualistic cult involving the sacrificial use of fire and an exhilarating drink called soma, as well as the rudiments of a social order II. These gods are found to be somewhat parallel to other Indo. Aryan cultures, such as Iran and Greece 3. The religion developed by the Aryans are found in the Vedas

III. Vedas are referred to as the Sruti—”that which heard or “that of divine origin” A. Represents established knowledge, its final authority is accepted by all Hindus as eternal and revealed scripture B. The earliest portion of the Vedas consists of four metrical hymns, known as the Samhitas:

1. Rig-Veda 1028 (arranged in 10 mandalas or circles) hymns to the gods, shows optimism and enjoyment of the world, stresses humility to the gods Written between 1500 -900 BCE Dominated by hymns praising the Aryan gods for giving them victorious and wealth plundered from the local Dasas through warfare Hymns refer to the use of horses and chariots with spikes, spears, bows, arrows, and iron weapons

Rig-Veda II; 20: 6 -8 refers to victory over the Dasa peoples He, self-reliant, mighty and triumphant, , brought low the dear head of the wicked Dasas. Inda, the Vritra-slayer, fort-destroyer, scattered the Dasa hosts who dwelt in darkness. For men hath he created earth and waters, and ever helped the prayer of him who worships. To him in might the Gods have ever yielded, to Indra in the tumult of battle. When in his arms they laid the bolt, , he slaughtered the Dasyus and cast down their forts of iron

Rig-Veda I; 1: 1 -5 I laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice Worthy is Agni to be praised by living as by ancient seers Through Agni man obtaineth wealth, yes, plenty waxing day by day Agni, the perfect sacrifice, which though encompassest about May Agni, sapient-minded Priest, truthful, most gloriously great;

The first indication of the cast system is contained in a hymn to Purusha—the embodied human spirit, who is ¼ creature and ¾ eternal life in heaven Rig-Veda 10: 90 A thousand heads hath Purusa, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet On every side pervading earth he fills a space ten fingers wide This Purusa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be. . . When they divided Purusa how many portions did they make? What do they call his mouth, his arms? What do they call his thighs and feet? The Brahman was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya made. His thighs became the Vaisya, from his feet the Sudra was produced The Moon was gendered from his mind, and from his eye the Sun had birth; Indra and Agni from his mouth were born, and Vayu from his breath

Rig-Veda 2: 12 1. The god who had insight the moment he was born, the first who protected the gods with his power of thought, before whose breath the two world-halves tremble as the greatness of his manly powers. —he, my people, is Inda 2. He who made fast the tottering earth, who made still the quaking mountains, who measured out and extended the expanse of the air, who propped up the sky—he, my people, is Indra

Rig-Veda 5: 85 1. For the emperor I will sing a splendid, deep prayer, one that will be dear to the famous Varuna who struck apart the earth and spread it beneath the sun as the priest who performs the slaughter spreads out the victim’s skin 2. He stretched out the middle realm of space in the trees; he laid victory in swift horses and milk in the dawn cows, intelligence in hearts and fire in the waters. Varuna placed the sun in the sky and Soma on the mountain

Creation Hymns RV 10: 129—There was neither non-existence nor existence then; there was neither in the realm of space nor the sky which is beyond. What stirred? Where? In whose protection? Was there water, bottomlessly deep? There was neither dead nor immortality then. There was no distinguishing sign of night or day. That one breathed, windless, by its own impulse. Other than that there was nothing beyond RV 10: 121— In the beginning the Golden Embryo arose. Once he was born, he was the one lord of creation. He held in place the earth and the sky. Who is the god whom we should worship with the oblation? He who gives life, who gives strength, whose command all the gods, his own, obey; his shadow is immortality—and death. Who is the god who we should worship with the oblation?

The relationship between the various deities of Rig-Veda are not clear (a) Each may be represented as the supreme god (b) Indra stands out as the preeminent god of Rig-Veda, which recounts his deeds (c) In terms of this tradition, creation proceeded when Indra, the champion of the celestial gods, slew a demon, Vrita, who enclosed the waters and the sun requisite for human life

(d) When Indra split open the belly of this demon the essentials of creation— moisture, heat, light—were released and cosmic order—rita—was established under administration of the god Varuna

7. Gods and men had specific functions (vrata) to perform in accordance with this cosmic order 8. After death individuals who had fulfilled their obligations under cosmic order went to a heavenly realm presided over by Yama, the first mortal 9. Two mythological dogs guarded the righteous on the path to the region, but the sinful were fettered out, and unprotected, fell prey to various demons

10. Cultic practices developed an elaborate ritual based on a fire sacrifice, personified as the god Agni, the crackling of the sacrificial fire was viewed as the voice of Agni 11. The soma juice, personified by the god Soma, was used 12. Importance was given to the chanting of hymns and invocations by the human priesthood

13. Later the sacrifice was viewed cosmologically and the correct performance of the sacrifice possessed a magical potency which could coerce even the gods (a) This magical power in the prayers developed into spells called brahman (b) He who recited them was “prayer-er” or brahman, or one related to prayer (brahmana) (c) This principle would be used in the Upanishads as the ultimate principle

2. Yajur Veda (10 th century BCE) Sacred liturgy written in prose, sacrificial formulas. Caste system was in place and role of priests and their ceremonies gained influence and justified the Aryan ways to native workers Yajur Veda has 2 collections called White and Black —the latter being more obscure in its meaning By instituting more elaborate sacrifices for their wealthy patrons, the priests could grow both in numbers and wealth. The horse sacrifice was one of the most famous— not done very often—the parts of the horse symbolized different aspects of the universe

The soma sacrifice was the most important and could last up to 12 years. The priests placed themselves at the top of the caste system. After the Atharva Veda was accepted, each sacrifice required at least 4 priests, one on each side of the fire using the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, plus their assistants.

Yajur Veda 1. 2. 7 a. I buy Soma from thee, strong, rich in sap, full of force, overcoming the foe, the pure with the pure I buy, the bright with the bright, the immortal with the immortal, to match they cow. b. With be the gold c. Thou art the bodily form of penance, Prajati’s kind, I buy (Soma) with the last offspring of thee that bast a thousandfold prosperity. d. With us be union with thee; with me let thy wealth abide e. With us be light, darkness be on the Soma-seller f. Come as a friend to us, creating firm friendships. g. Enter the right thigh of Indra, glad the glad, tender the tender. h. O Svana, Bhraja, Anghari, Bambhari, Hasta, Suhasta, and Krcanu, here are your wages for Soma; guard them, let them not fail you.

3. Sama Vedas Collections of chants sung by priests at sacrifice. These are considered to be the origin of Indian music The Sama Vedas helped to train the musicians and functioned as a hymnal for the religious rites The animal sacrifices did not use the Sama chants.

Sama Veda, Book III, Chapter 1, Decade 1 1. Let Soma juices make thee glad! Display thy bounty, Thunderer: Drive off the enemies of prayer! 2. Drink our libation, Lord of hymns! With streams of meath thou art bedweded: Ye, Indra, glory is thy gift. 3. Indra hath ever thought of you and tended you with care. The God, Heroic Indra, is not checked. 4. Let the drops pass within thee as the rivers flow into the sea O Indra, naught excelleth thee! 5. Indra, the singers with high praise, Indra reciters with their lauds, Indra the choirs have glorified 6. May Indra give, to aid us wealth handy that rules the skilful ones! Yea, may the Strong give potent wealth. 7. Verily, Indra, conquering all, drives even mighty fear away, For firm is he and swift to act. 8. These songs with every draught we pour come, lover of the song, to thee As milch-kine hasten to their calves. 9. Indra and Wishan will we call for friendship and prosperity, And for the wining of the spoil. 10. O Indra, Vrita-slayer, naught is better, mighter than thou Verily there is none like thee!

4. Atharva Veda Magical formulas, spells, incantations, the most recent of the works The bheshajani spells are for healing and cures using herbs to treat fever, leprosy, jaundice, and other diseases. The abhichara spells were negative or bewitching spells and were used to cause diseases or harm to enemies Marriage ceremonies would be included (Atharva Veda 14: 2 -71 I am he, you are she. I am song; you are verse. I am heaven; you are earth Let us two dwell together here; let us generate children

Artha Veda 1. 23 Leprosy cured by a dark plant 1. Born by night art thou, O plant, dark, black, sable. Do thou, that art rich in colour, stain this leprosy, and the gray spots! 2. The leprosy and the gray spots drive away from here—may thy native colour settle upon thee—the white spots cause to fly away! 3. Sable is thy hiding place, sable thy dwellingplace, sable art thou, O plant: drive away from here the speckled spots. 4. The leprosy which has originated in the bones, and that which has originated in the body and upon the skin, the white mark begotten of corruption, I have destroyed with my charm.

Vedic Sacrifices

Characteristics of Vedic Ritual I. There was no fixed place of worship—no temples or permanent structures were devoted to Vedic ritual II. There is no evidence for icons or images representing gods or their attributes

III. Central focus of Vedic ritual is fire IV. Principle and central act of almost all rituals is the offering of edible or drinkable substances into the fire V. The rituals range from the simplest (Agnihorta or “Fire offering’ to the twice daily offerings of milk and other products into the fire

Participants of the Ritual I. The Ahitagni who actually causes the ritual to be performed—known as the yajamana or sacrificer II. He relies on a collection of priests who fall into four main groups

A. The priests of the Rig Veda, the Sama Veda, and the Yajur Veda are responsible for the three types of sacral utterance that together form the verbal sector of Vedic ritual B. The chief priest represent the Rig Vedas is called the Hortar, in the Sama the Udgatar, that of the Yajur is the Adhvaryu

C. The representatives of the Atharva Veda is the Brahman who oversees the whole operation III. A third set of presentatives is invisible (except for Soma and Agni) and are a selection of the gods

Types of Sacrifices I. Haviryajnas—determined by the rhythm of the year and movements of the sun and moon II. Agnihorta—twice daily offering of the fire III. Dars’apaur. Namasa—the new and full moon sacrifice involves offering every two weeks

IV. Caturmasyani—Four monthly or seasonal sacrifices V. Agraya. Na—first fruits offered at harvest VI. Pas’ubandha—animal sacrifice VII. As’vamedha—horse sacrifice where a horse is slaughtered

(4) Commentaries on the Vedas include:

(a) Brahmamanas (Between 900 & 700 BCE) Written in prose as sacerdotal commentaries on the four Vedas to guide the practices of the sacrifices and give explanations for the often mythical and fanciful customs They serve as a transition from the Vedas to the Aranyakas and the more mystical Upanishads They also contain stories meant to explain or rationalize their religious practices The power of the WORD is increasing as the sacrifices were glorified and given power over the Vedic gods

Japa, or the practice of chanting a mantram like Aum (OM) practiced ascetically with the sacrifices were believed to produce all one’s desires Prajapti becomes more powerful and is said to have given birth to the gods and the demons—he would be the first to sacrifice and was also considered to be the sacrifice itself He practiced tapas to create by the heat of his own efforts Prajapati would later be replaced by Brahman A belief in repeated lives through reincarnation is indicated in several passages

(b) Aranyakas (600 BCE) Forest texts, sages of the forest, collections of hidden truths elucidated They were tacked on to the end of the Brahmanas; only 3 are extant and share the names of the Brahmanas they follow Texts were transitions between the Brahmanas and the Upanishads—they discuss rites and magic contents but also early speculations which would later flower in the Upanishads Emphasis is placed on knowledge; human immortality identified with the soul (atman)

(c) Upanishads Which were reactions against sacrificial system, very philosophical, stresses ultimate cosmic principle as Brahman The term literally means “those who sit near”— implies a seeker listening closely to the secret doctrines of a spiritual teacher. There are over 200, but only 15 are mentioned by the philosopher Shankara (788 -820) CE. They are considered Vedic—the rest were written later and are related to the Puranic worship of Shiva, Shakti, and Vishnu

The oldest and longest are the Brihad-Aranyaka and the Chandogya (7 th century BCE) The Brihad-Aranyaka has 3 Aranyaka chapters followed by six Upanishad chapters

The Principle Upanishads The best known in English Kena and Chandogya, attached to the Sama Vedas Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandakya, attached to the Atharva Veda Brihad-Aranyaka, attached to the Rig-Veda Taittiriya, attached to the Black Yajur-Veda Isha, attached to the 40 th chapter of the Vajasaeyi. Samhita

Doctrines of the Upanishads 1. The primary message is that through meditation one can become aware that one’s soul (atman) is one with all things 2. The soul is identified with the real, the immortal, and the life-breath (prana), which is veiled by name and form (individuality) 3. The principle of action (karma) is explained as “one becomes good by good action, bad by bad action” (Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad 3: 2 -13)

5. The soul is identified as being intelligent, dear, true, endless, blissful and stable. In the Brihad. Aranyaka Upanishad (3: 9 -26) the soul is said to be. . . not this, not that It is incomprehensible, for it is not comprehended. It is indestructible, for it is never destroyed. It is unattached, for it does not attach itself. It is unfettered; it does not suffer; it is not injured.

6. By stressing the meaning behind the ritual, the Upanishads would stress that there would be various levels of comprehension suited to different individual intellectual capacities and by identifying partially or by degrees two similar or dissimilar elements which will on further analysis or introspection reveal a unity

7. This latter aspect helps to suggest that the dualism in the world is to some extent unreal [1] The macrocosm is viewed universally as the brahman [2] The microcosmic nature of the human soul is the atman [3] Brahman is the only real and unchanging reality [4] Brahman cannot really be defined [5] The atman exists in the midst of the changes of the universe [6] The atman exists in all things, animate and inanimate [7] Beings differ in the degree to which Atman has come to be realized

8. There is an evolution of a gradual uncovering or bringing to light of realization of atman. The atman is shown as being enclosed in a series of sheaths [a] annamaya—the self, the physical body [b] pranamaya—the vital principle, breath, which holds and vitalizes together the body and the mind. Life continues in this sheath [c] manomaya—manas, impressions through the senses [d] uynanamaya—intellect [e] anandamaya—bliss, ego

9. Upanishads identifies 3 stages of consciousness [1] The Waking State—awareness of things external to the body [2] The Dreaming State—awareness of internal phenomena and enjoying mental impressions, mind active though independently of the sense organs, pure mental beings [3] The Deep Sleep State, entirely unaware of external and internal world [4] Pure Consciousness—a fourth stage which transcends all states. Here the atman is fully realized; it is the supreme mystical experience

10. Liberation is achieved through 2 spiritual disciplines [1] observation of moral laws [a] moral laws are accomplished through self-discipline [b] ultimate moral ideal of Upanishads is complete self-abnegation [2] practice of meditation accomplished by hearing and reflection

11. The relationship of Atman and Brahman can be found in the phrase Tat Tvam Asi — thou art that—stressing a relationship and complete identify between Brahman and Atman 12. There are 108 Upanishads with 10 them considered to be the most important [1]The words must be seen as spontaneous records of mystic experiences of the rishis, not a calculated logic or rational thinking [2] The primary state to this mystic experience is the negation or denial of all external things

Methodology A. Dialogue with questions and answers B. Narration and episodes C. Similes, metaphors, and illustrations D. Symbolism

Brahma Sutra indicates three main guidelines to understand purpose of Upanishads A. Tattu samanvayaah. h—total material available on the point of study in the entire Shruti literature has to be taken into account and interpreted correctly by applying canons of interpretation

B. Gati samaanyaah. h—All Shruti literature have the same purport and apparent contradictions are resolved by proper study and interpretation C. Sarvavedoantapratyayam. h— underlying purport of Upanishads is found to be one of consistent truth, which when fully understood fully will lead to God-realization

Chandogya Upanishad 1. It belongs to the Sama Veda and is the last 8 chapters of the 10 -chapter Chandogya Brahmana 2. Religious life is described as having 3 parts a. Sacrifice, study of the Vedas, and giving alms b. Austerity c. Studying the sacred knowledge while living in the house of a teacher 3. Reincarnation is clearly emphasized and declares that those who conduct is pleasant here will enter a pleasant womb of a Brahmin, Kshatriya, or Vaisya; those of stinking conduct will enter the stinking womb of a dog, swine, or outcast

Taittiriya Upanishad 1. The word AUM is emphasized—prayers often end with AUM 2. Peace of the soul is emphasized— prayers often end with the chanting of peace (shanti) three times 3. Highest goal is to know Brahman

Aitareya Upanishad 1. Begins with the one Spirit creating the universe out of its being. Out of the cosmic egg came speech, breath, eyes and sight, ears and hearing, skin, hair, and herbs; from the navel and outbreath came death and from the organ of pleasure seed and waters were born 2. Ascending from this world with the intelligent soul, one obtains all desires in a heavenly world, eventually immortality

Katha Upanishad Belongs to Taittiriiya Shaakhas of the Krishna Yajur Veda

1. Utilizes an ancient story from the RV about a father who gives his son Nachiketas to death (Yama); it brings in some of the highest teachings of mystical spirituality 2. The chariot is used as a symbol for a person a. The soul is the lord of the chariot, which is the body b. Buddhi (intuition) is the chariot-driver c. The mind is the reins d. The senses are the horses e. The paths are the objects of the senses

3. Three boons asked by Nachiketas a. Let my father be freed from anger towards me, let his calm by restored and let him recognize me when I return b. Teach me the nature of the Supreme God Hari, also bearing the name of Agni, who can bestow the immortal world to t hose who worship Him by performing the Nachiketas sacrifice

c. Teach me the nature of the Supreme God, who controls the souls after and liberation

Thus, the whole of Vedic literature consists of four Vedas or Samhitas, several expository ritual texts attached to each of these Vedas, and speculative works, or Upanishads