I General characteristics of semasiological expressive means and

I. General characteristics of semasiological expressive means and stylistic devices. II. Classification of figures of secondary nomination (substitution). a) figures of quantity; b). figures of quality. III. Classification of figures of combination. a). figures of identity; b). figures of opposition; c). figures of inequality.

1. 2. 3. 4. RECOMMENDED LITERATURE Стилистика современного английского языка / А. Н. Мороховский, О. П. Воробьёва, Н. И. Лихошерст, З. В. Тимошенко. – К. : Вища школа, 1991. – c. 163 -199. Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка. – Л. : Просвещение, 1981. – c. 82 -93. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. – M. : Higher School Publishing House, 1981. – p. 132 -160. Kukharenko V. A. A Book of Practice in Stylistics. – Vinnytsia: Nova Knyga, 2000. – p. 42 -68.

I. General Characteristics of Semasiological Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices. Semasiology is a branch of linguistics which studies semantics (i. e. meaning) of linguistic units belonging to different language levels. Stylistic semasiology is interested in the stylistic meaning only, i. e. the additional meaning of linguistic units which form the basis of expressive means and stylistic devices. Semasiological Stylistic Means are subdivided into two big groups: Figures of substitution (secondary nomination) Figures of combination

II. Classification of Figures of Secondary Nomination (Figures of Substitution). Figures of secondary nomination appear in the language for two main reasons: language economy (e. g: computer memory, computer mouse); higher expressiveness of speech (e. g: the man is a real bear) Figures of substitution are divided into two classes: figures of quantity and figures of quality. Figures of quantity – consist of two opposite subgroups: overstatement (hyperbole); understatement (meiosis and litotes). .

Figures of quality – comprise three types of renaming: the group of metonymy and its varieties – synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism, dysphemism (anti -euphemism); the group of metaphor and its varieties – personification, antonomasia, allegory, allusion; also epithet; irony.

Figures of Substitution Figures of quantity Figures of Quality METONYMY Hyperbole Meiosis Litotes Synecdoche Periphrasis Euphemism (dysphemism) METAPHOR Personification Antonomasia Allegory Allusion Epithet IRONY

II A). FIGURES OF QUANTITY. Hyperbole – is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration aimed at intensifying one of the features of the object. 1. An overstatement may be considered hyperbole only when the exaggeration is deliberate and both the speaker and the listener are aware of it. An expressive hyperbole is exaggeration on a big scale. E. g. : The traffic stopped, the plants ceased growing, men were paralyzed, the clouds hung in the air, the sun halted in the sky, the tides disappeared… (R. Gordon) E. g. : I remember a friend of mine buying a couple of cheeses at Liverpool. Splendid cheeses they were, ripe and mellow, and with a two-hundred horse-power scent about them that might have been warranted to carry three miles, and knock a man over at two hundred yards (Jerome).

3. Hyperbole may be expressed by all notional parts of speech, but most frequent are cases with numerals (hundred, thousand, million), adverbs of frequency (ever, never, always), pronouns (everybody, nobody, all, none). 4. Quite often it is combined with other stylistic figures – metaphor, simile, irony, tautology: E. g. 1: His small eyes moved to me. Then, in a silence you could lean on, he plodded across the terrace, went down the steps to the waiting police car (J. H. Chase). – metaphoric hyperbole (hyperbolic metaphor). E. g. 2: To a medical student the final examinations are something like death – an unpleasant inevitability to be faced sooner or later, one’s state after which is determined by care spent in preparing for the event (R. Gordon) – hyperbolic simile

Effect: Hyperboles (especially illogical ones) are employed for humorous or satirical purposes as well as to express the author’s attitude to the described: E. g. 1: His grey face was so long that he could wind it twice round his neck (R. Chandler). E. g. 2: There I took out my pig… and gave him such a kick that he went out the other end of the alley, twenty feet ahead of his squeal (O. Henry).

Many colloquial hyperboles (once original and bright) lose their vividness and become trite through frequent usage: a thousand pardons; I’ve told you a hundred times; he was frightened to death; haven’t seen you for ages etc.

Meiosis – is a deliberate understatement, i. e. lessening, weakening or reducing the real characteristics of the object of speech: to cost a pretty penny. E. g. : We’ve got a few lights on Broadway, don’t you think, Mr. Platt (O’Henry). E. g: “And what did you think of our little town (New York!)? ” asked Zizzbaum, with the fatuous smile of the Manhattanite (“The Buyer from Cactus City” by O. Henry)

Effects: serves to underline the insignificance of what we speak about; shows the speaker’s intentional modesty: I kind of liked it; we might do worse; it could be better; may create a humorous effect when meiotic devices (the so-called ‘downtowners’: maybe, please, would you mind) are combined with rude words: – Would you mind getting the hell out of my way. – It isn’t any of your business maybe. – Идите жрать, пожалуйста.

Litotes is expressing an idea by means of negating the opposite idea also can be defined as the statement in the form of negation. !!! Litotes has a specific semantic and syntactic structure: • the usage of particle not before a word with a negative affix: not unkind; not faultless; not dissatisfied; not without; • the negation of the antonym of the idea to be expressed: not bad. • in some cases two negative affixes can make a litotes within one word: un-il-legal.

This device is used to make the utterance less categorical; to weaken positive characteristics of a thing or person; to convey the speaker’s doubts as to the significance of the object of speech. E. g. : Was it possible that she could have gone to have an abortion? In the Dublin of 1958 such things were not unknown. (M. Binchy) E. g. : Maybe one of those old men in the commercial room had been Nellie’s heart’s desire. It wasn’t so impossible. (M. Binchy)

II A). FIGURES OF QUALITY. Metonymy is a figure of secondary nomination based upon contiguity (суміжність), i. e. upon a real logical connection between two objects. !!! Types of metonymy forming relations: names of tools instead of names of actions: E. g. : Give every man thine ear and few thy voice (Shakespeare). (ear = listening; voice = speaking); E. g. We smiled at each other, but we didn’t speak as there were ears all around us. (Chase)

tools used instead of the result of their usage: E. g. : For several days he took an hour after his work to make inquiry taking with him some examples of his pen and inks (Th. Dreiser) (examples of pen and inks = writings); consequence instead of cause: fish desperately taking the death = fish snapping at the fish-hook; symbol instead of object symbolized: crown = monarchy; from the cradle to the grave – from birth to death

feature of appearance or a piece of clothing for a person: E. g. : Across country we went like wind followed by a couple of black cars full of moustaches. They were gaining on us (Durrell). E. g. : I was followed by a pair of heavy boots. container and a thing contained: E. g. : She was a sunny, happy sort of creature. Too fond of the bottle (A. Cristie) (the bottle = liquid inside it);

Synecdoche – a variety of metonymy in which the name of a part is used to denote the whole and vice versa. E. g. : Hands wanted! E. g. : Nancy broke with Rome the day her baby died. It was a secret break but no Catholic breaks with Rome casually ( J. O’Hara). Periphrasis lies in naming the characteristic features of the object instead of naming the object itself. E. g. : the fair sex (women); my better half (my wife); люди у білих халатах (doctors); біле золото (cotton).

Functions: to convey an individual perception of the phenomenon, positive or negative attitudes on the part of the speaker; to stress the feature of an object that is of a particular interest in the given situation; may lead to a humorous effect E. g. : And then, to the waiter he betrayed the fact that the minutest coin and himself were strangers (= that he didn’t have a single coin) (O’Henry). may create a high-flown tonality.

Euphemism (Greek euphēmismos < eu “well” + phēme “speaking”) – is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. Euphemisms may be divided into several groups: religious: the deuce, the dickens = the devil; the Lord, Heaven, Jove = God; connected with death: to pass away, to expire, to depart, to join the majority = to die;

medical: lunatic asylum, mental hospital = “madhouse”; mentally ill = “insane”; political (mislead public opinion, express what is unpleasant in a more delicate manner): undernourishment =“starvation”; tension=“uprising” moral (used for moral considerations not to offend smb’s feelings or smb’s delicate ear). – the names of definite parts of the body: E. g. : <…> severe cuts in the lower part of her back; severe wounds just in those parts where the poor sister couldn’t attend to them herself (C. S. Forester) – inappropriate words like “a prostitute, a whore” = ‘a woman of a certain type’;

– instead of a more rough “to steal” = to come by smth in a dishonest manner. E. g. : Pearson had apparently before now occasionally borrowed money – to use a euphemism – from his farm – I may say without their knowledge (A. Christie). E. g. : In private I should merely call him a liar. In the Press you should use the words: ‘Reckless disregeard for truth’ and in Parliament – that you regret he ‘should have been so misinformed’. (G. Galsworthy) See also: E. g. : One doesn’t fail exam. One comes down, one muffs, one is ploughed, plucked or pipped. These infer a misfortune that is not one’s own fault. To speak of failing is bad taste. (R. Gordon)

Dysphemisms (anti-euphemism) – deliberately rough and unpleasant expressions replacing neutral words to express contempt, irritation, hatred and other negative attitudes on the part of the speaker. E. g. : Is it asking too much for you to sell me one of your disgusting specimens of yellow journalism (J. Cheever)

Metaphor – expressive renaming on the basis of similarity, likeness, or affinity (real or imaginary) between two objects. !! There is no real connection between the objects (as in metonymy). Structurally metaphors can be simple (elementary) and prolonged (sustained). Simple metaphor uses one feature common for the two objects: The whole world is a stage.

Prolonged metaphor is not limited to one feature but contains a logical development of the central idea with the help of additional images. E. g. 1: He was surprised that the fire which flashed from his eyes did not melt the glasses of the spectacles (A. Huxley).

Personification – is attributing human properties to lifeless objects, mostly to abstract notions, such as thoughts, actions, seasons of the year etc. Autumn comes And trees are shedding their leaves, And Mother Nature blushes Before disrobing (N. West)

Formal signs of personification. the use of the personal pronouns he and she with reference to lifeless things; direct address: O stretch thy reign, fair Peace! From shore to shore Till conquest cease, and slavery be no more (Pope). capitalization of the word expressing a personified notion: No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet (Byron).

The purpose of personification: to help visualize the description, to give dynamic force to it or to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer. E. g. : The kettle was aggravating and obstinate. It wouldn’t allow itself to be adjusted to the top bar; it wouldn’t hear of accommodating itself to the knobs of the coal; it would lean forward with a drunken air, and dribble, a very idiot of a kettle (Dickens). E. g. : In November a cold, unseen stranger, whom the doctors call Pneumonia, stalked about the colony, touching one here and there with his icy fingers. Over on the east side this ravager strode boldly, smiting his victims by scores… Mr. Pneumonia was not what you would call a chivalric old gentleman (O. Henry)

Allegory – a means of expressing abstract ideas through concrete pictures. The term is employed !! with reference to more or less complete texts, not to individual metaphors within a lengthy text. The shortest allegorical texts are proverbs, where the instruction is given in a visual form: E. g. : Make hay while the sun shines = Куй железо пока горячо = Коси коса поки роса = “Make use of a favourable situation, do not miss an opportunity, do not waste time”.

See also: All is not gold that glitters =Appearances are deceptive; Every cloud has a silver lining =A period of distress is sure to have an end; No rose without a thorn = Everything has its drawbacks. Certain genres of literature allegorical throughout: fairy tales fables philosophical or satirical novels (e. g. : Gulliver’s Travells).

Allusion is a brief reference to some literary or historical event commonly known. Allusion needs no indication of the source. It is assumed to be known. Therefore most allusions are made to facts with which the general reader should be familiar. E. g. : But the viva is judgment day (Doctorov)

Antonomasia (Greek: antonomasia – “renaming”) the usage of a proper name d instead of a common noun or vice versa. the first type (proper name as a common noun) is used as a kind of cliché to characterize a person: E. g. : He is a real Romeo. E. g. : Her mother is perfectly unbearable. Never met such a Gorgon (Wilde). another type – “speaking names” (token, telling names) which originate from common nouns and give information about the bearer of the name. E. g. : Lady Teasle or Mr. Surface (Sheridan “School of Scandal”)

Epithet is an attributive word, phrase or even a sentence used to characterize an object with the aim of giving its individual perception. !! Its basic feature is subjectivity and emotiveness (blue dreams). !! Logical attribute is objective and non-evaluating (blue dress). Semantically epithets may be divided into two groups: emotive – serve to convey the emotional evaluation of the object (magnificent view, gorgeous hotel) vs figurative/transferred – based on metaphors, metonymies and similes: a ghost-like face, a sleepless pillow, the smiling sun.

Structurally epithets are subdivided into: Single Es: sullen earth, unearthly pleasure etc; Pairs: wonderful and incomparable beauty; a tired old town; Chain/ strings of Es present a group of homogeneous attributes (from 3 up to 20 and even more): E. g. : “Such was the background of the wonderful, cruel, enchanting, bewildering, fatal, great city” (Dickens); Two-step Es have a fixed structure of Adv+Adj model: E. g. : an unnaturally mild day; Phrase/ sentence Es – a phrase or even a sentence used attributively: E. g. : a be-with-you-in-a-minute nod (Uhnak); E. g. : Fiona’s mother was very firmly in the Nice Girls Wait Until They Are Married school of thought (Binchy);

Irony (Greek: eironea – “concealed mockery”) – is based upon the contradiction between the meaning expressed and the meaning implied. also: negative implication of the explicitly positive utterance. Irony is used with the aim of critical evaluation of the thing spoken about. The general scheme is: “praise stands for blame”. E. g. : It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.

Signals. In oral speech irony is often made prominent by emphatic intonation. In writing, the most typical signs are inverted commas or italics. More often, however, it is general situation (context) which makes the reader or listener guess the real viewpoint of the writer or speaker.

Structural classification: Verbal irony – a word or word-combination whose contextual meaning diametrically opposes its dictionary meaning. Sustained irony – is created by a number of statements or by the whole text. It is formed by the contradiction between the speaker’s (writer’s) pretended considerations and the generally accepted moral codes. Sometimes the whole of the narrative is ironical, as is the case with W. Thackeray’s “Vanity Fair” or “An Ideal Husband”, “The Devoted Friend” by O. Wilde.

Semantic classification: Language irony – represents utterances with the fixed ironical sense. E. g. : A fine friend you are! (Гарний друг, нічого сказати! Нічого собі удружив! that’s a pretty kettle of fish! Гарненька справа). Also: чистоплюй, розумник, краснобай, білоручка. Contextual (or speech) irony – utterances which can be understood either literally, or ironically, depending on the situation (context). E. g: But of course we know, he’s a rich man, a millionaire.