History of Health Care
Objectives Students will: • • Identify medical/health care milestones that have led to advances in health care. Predict where and how factors such as cost, managed care, technology, and aging population, access to care, alternative therapies, and lifestyle behavior may affect various health delivery system models.
4000 BC – 3000 BC Primitive Times n n n Illness and diseases were a punishment from the Gods Tribal witch doctors treated illness with ceremonies Herbs and plants used as medicines (morphine and digitalis) Trepanation or trephining (surgically removig a piece of bone from the skull) Average life span was 20 years
3000 BC – 300 BC Ancient Egyptians Physicians were priests n Bloodletting or leeches used as medical treatment n Average life span was 20 -30 years n
1700 BC – AD 220 Ancient Chinese n n n Believed in the need to treat the whole body by curing the spirit and nourishing the body Recorded a pharmacopoeia of medications based mainly on the use of herbs Used therapies such as acupuncture Began to search for medical reasons for illness Average life span was 20 -30 years
1200 BC – 200 BC Ancient Greeks n n n First to observe the human body and the effects of disease – led to modern medical sciences. Believed illness is a result of natural causes Used therapies such as massage, art therapy, and herbal treatment Stressed diet and exercise as ways to prevent disease Average life span was 25 -35 years
753 BC – AD 410 Ancient Romans n n n First to organize medical care by providing care for injured soldiers Later hospitals were religious and charitable institutions in monasteries and convents First public health and sanitation systems by building sewers and aqueducts Galen established belief that the body was regulated by four body humors; blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile Life span was 25 -35 years
AD 400 – AD 800 Dark Ages Emphasis on saving the soul and study of medicine was prohibited n Prayer and divine intervention were used to treat illness & disease n Monks and priests provided custodial care for sill people n Medications were mainly herbal mixtures n Average life span was 20 -30 years n
AD 800 – AD 1400 Middle Ages n n n Renewed interest in medical practices of Greek and Romans Bubonic Plague killed 75% of population in Europe and Asia Major diseases included smallpox, diptheria, tuberculosis, typhoid, the plaque, and malaria Arabs began requiring physicians pass examinations and obtain licenses Average life span was 20 -35 years
AD 1350 – AD 1650 Renaissance Dissection of body led to increased understanding of anatomy and physiology n Invention of printing press allowed medical knowledge to be shared n First anatomy book was published by Andreas Vesalius (1514 -1564) n Average life span was 30 -40 years n
16 th and 17 th Centuries n n n Cause of disease still not known – many people died from infections Invention of the microscope allowed physicians to see disease-causing organisms. Apothecaries (early pharmicists) made, prescribed, and sold medications Ambroise Pare (1510 -1590), a French surgeon, known as the Father of Modern Surgery established use of ligatures to stop bleeding Average life span 35 -45 years
18 th Century Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 -1736) created the first mercury thermometer n John Hunter (1728 -1793), established scientific surgical procedures and introduced tube feeding n Benjamin Franklin invented bifocals n Average life span 40 -50 years n
19 th Century n n n Rapid advancements due to discoveries of microorganisms, anesthesia, and vaccinations Infection control developed once microorganisms were associated with disease Formal training for nurses began Women became active participants in health care Average life span 40 -60 years
20 th Century n n Increased knowledge about the role of blood in the body ABO blood groups discovered Found out how white blood cells protect against disease New medications were developed n n Insulin discovered and used to treat diabetes Antibiotics developed to fight infections Vaccines were developed New machines developed n n n Kidney Dialysis Machine Heart Lung Machine Surgical and diagnostic techniques developed to cure once fatal conditions
20 th Century (continued) n n n n Organ Transplants Test tube babies Implanted first artificial heart Health Care Plans developed to help pay the cost of care Medicare and Medicaid marked the entry of the federal government into the health care arena HMOs provided an alternative to private insurance Hospice organized
21 st Century n n The first totally implantable artificial heart was placed in a patient in Louisville, Ky. In 2001 The threat of bioterrorism lead to smallpox vaccination of the military and first responders in 2002 The Netherlands became the first country in the world to legalize euthanasia in 2002 The Human Genome Project to identify all of the approximately 20, 000 to 25, 000 genes in the human
21 st Century n n Stem cells were used in the treatments of disease early in the 2000’s and lead to increased research in the treatment of cancer and other diseases President George W. Bush approved federal funding for research using only existing lines of embryonic stem cells in 2001 Advanced Cell Technology announced it cloned a human embryo in 2001 but the embryo did not survive The U. S. FDA approved the use of the abortion pill RU-486 IN 200
21 st Century n n n The standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information, required under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA) of 1996, went into effect in 2003 The Medicare Prescription Drug Improvement and Modernization Act was passed in 2003 Vaccinations for cervical cancer and herpes zoster (shingles) in 2006
Potential for 21 st Century Cures for AIDS, cancer, and heart disease n Genetic manipulation to prevent inherited disease n Nerves in the brain and spinal cord are regenerated to prevent paralysis n Antibiotics are developed that do not allow pathogens to develop resistance n Average life span 90 -100 years n
Individual Contributions
Hippocrates (460 – 377 BC) Greek physician known as the “Father of Medicine n Authored code of conduct for doctors known as the “Hippocratic Oath” that is the basis of medical practice today n Believed illness was not caused by evil spirits and stressed importance of good diet, fresh air, cleanliness, and exercise n
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632 -1723) Invented the microscope lens that allowed visualization of organisms n Scraped his teeth and observed the bacteria that causes tooth decay n
Benjamin Franklin (1706 -1790) n Invented bifocals n Found that colds could be passed from person to person
Ephraim Mc. Dowell (1771 -1 1830) n n Surgeon from Danville, Ky. Performed the first ovariotomy -(surgical removal of the ovary) - to remove a 22 pound tumor
Edward Jenner (1749 -1823) n Developed a vaccination for smallpox in 1796
Rene Laennec (1781 -1826) n n Invented the stethoscope in 1819 First stethoscope was made of wood
Elizabeth Blackwell (1821 -1910) n First female physician in the United States in 1849
Florence Nightingale (1820 -1910) n n Known as the “Founder of Modern Nursing” Established efficient and sanitary nursing units during the Crimean War in 1854 Invented the call bell system and use of dumbwaiters to deliver meals Begin the professional education of nurses
Louis Pasteur (1822 -1895) n n n Known as the “Father of Microbiology” His germ theory proved that microorganisms cause disease Proved that heat can be used to destroy germs through a process called pasteurization Created a vaccine for rabies in 1885 Founded the basic rules for sterilization
Joseph Lister (1827 -1912) Used carbolic acid on wounds to kill germs n First doctor to use an antiseptic during surgery n
Clara Barton (1821 -1912) n n Volunteer nurse for wounded soldiers during the Civil War After Civil War, established a bureau of records to search for missing men Campaigned for the USA to sign the Treaty of Geneva, which provided relief for sick and wounded soldiers Formed American Red Cross in 1881 and served as its first president
Robert Koch (1843 -1910) Developed the culture plate method to identify pathogens n Isolated the bacterium that causes tuberculosis n
Wilhelm Roentgen (1845 -1923) Discovered roentgenograms (X -rays) in 1895 n Let doctors see inside the body n X-rayed wife’s hand n
Sigmund Freud (1836 -1939) Discovered the conscious and unconscious part of the mind n His studies were the basis for psychology and psychiatry n
Sir Alexander Fleming (1881 -1955) n Discovered penicillin in 1928 which is considered one of the most important discoveries of the twentieth century
Mary Breckinridge (1881 -1965) n n Born to an influential Kentucky family, she enjoyed a privileged childhood and education in the U. S. and Europe. Her father was the U. S. ambassador to Czar Nicholas II of Russia from 1894 to 1897. Established the Frontier Nursing Service (FNS) in 1925 as a private charitable organization serving an area of about 700 square miles in southeastern Kentucky. The staff was initially composed of nursemidwives trained in England. They traveled on horseback and on foot to provide quality prenatal and childbirth care in the clients' own homes, functioning as both midwives and family nurses. Since 1925, the FNS has registered over 64, 000 patients, and in its first 50 years, it "delivered 17, 053 babies with only 11 maternal deaths. " An FNS-trained nursemidwife began the first American school of midwifery in New York in 1932, and the FNS founded its own school in Hyden, Kentucky, in 1939. Breckinridge ran the Frontier Nursing Service until her death in 1965.
Jonas Salk (1914 -1995) Albert Sabin (1906 – 1993) n n Discovered polio vaccine Saved many people from this virus that paralyzed thousands of adults and children each year. Dr. Jonas Salk administering the injectable polio vaccine
Francis Crick (1916 – 2004) James Watson (1928 - ) Described the structure of DNA and how it carries genetic information in 1953 n Built a three-dimensional model of the molecules of DNA n Shared the Noble Prize in 1962 n
Christian Barnard (1922 – 2001) n Performed first successful heart transplant in 1968
Robert Jarvik (1946 - ) n Creator of the first artificial heart n On December 2, 1982, it was implanted into Barney Clark, who lived for the next 112 days n The second patient, William Schroeder, lived for 620 days
Ben Carson (1951 - ) Famous for his surgeries to separate Siamese twins n Currently Director of Pediatric Neurosurgery at John Hopkins n He has refined hemispherectomy, a surgery on the brain to stop seizures n
Current Trends in Health Care
Cost Containment n Cost of health care began rising due to: n n Technological advances Aging population Health-related lawsuits Cost Containment measures include: n n n Diagnostic related groups (DRG) Combination of services Outpatient services Mass or bulk purchasing Early intervention and preventive services
n Health care facilities specialized to include: n Home health care n Hospice care n Geriatric care n Types of facilities n Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) n Telemedicine
n Emphasis on promoting wellness of the whole individual: n Physical wellness n Emotional wellness n Social wellness n Mental and intellectual wellness n Spiritual Wellness n Holistic Health
n Alternative and Complementary Methods of Health Care n Chinese medicine practitioners n Chiropractors n Homeopaths n Hypnotists n Naturopaths
n National Health Care Plan n Has become a leading topic of debate due to the increasing number of uninsured Americans n Education and preparation for a potential pandemic n Due to the high rate international travel, the possibility for a devastating pandemic has increased
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