GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Synthetic

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Synthetic & analytical types of languages Analytical verb-forms: function word(s) + full word Synthetic verb-forms: inflectional morphemes + inner flexions

GRAMMAR - study of rules governing the use of a language Prescriptive approach Descriptive approach In traditional terms: morphology & syntax

MORPHOLOGY (Greek: morphé + logos) n how words - formed out of smaller units: morphemes Morpheme: n the smallest meaningful unit in a given language (L. Bloomfield) different realisations (morphs) in different context (do, does, don´t) Allomorphs = variants of a single morpheme, e. g. pl. -s: /-z/, /-s/, /iz/ n

MORPHEMES Free morphemes: n n lexical functional Bound morphemes: n n derivational inflectional

WORD CLASSES / PARTS OF SPEECH 2 major types: n full / content / notional words = open classes n function words = closed classes

NOUNS (Latin nomen = name) = person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, activity, state, event, … Some nouns: n the same form as verbs n graphically different n phonetically different

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF NOUNS n noun-forming derivational affixes n the threefold inflectional sibilant n marking by determiners n fixed position in the sentence n substitutable by pronouns

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS (1) PROPER NOUNS: n names of individuals - personal names - geographical names - names of ships, hotels, clubs, festivals, n group of individuals COMMON NOUNS

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS (2) COUNTABLE & UNCOUNTABLE CONCRETE NOUNS - definite objects ABSTRACT NOUNS - quality, action, state, ideas, … COLLECTIVE NOUNS - groups of people / things MATERIAL NOUNS - no limiting modifiers, no pl.

MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF Ns (1) 1) SIMPLE NOUNS: no affixes 2) DERIVATIVE NOUNS: prefixes: n of native origin: un-, mis-, pre-, for-; n borrowed from other languages: anti-, co-, ex-, il-, -in-, non-, proto-, semi-, sub-, super-, vice-,

MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF Ns (2) suffixes from Vs: -al, -ure, -ance, -ence, -ant, -ar, -er, -or, ion, -our, -ledge, -ment, -y, -ee n from Adj: -age, -cy, -ry, -ty, -ity, -ness n n from Ns: -ation, -dom, -ess, -hood, -ian, -ine, -ism, -ist, -ship

DERIVATIVES n -ing forms used as nouns diminutives: -let, -ing, -ie, -ock, -ette n names of nationalities: -ian, -er, -ese, -an, -ish, -ite - Ns with 2 suffixes

3) COMPOUND NOUNS N stem + N stem Adj + N Adv + N V + N N + V Adj + V Derivational CNs

3) COMPOUNDS CNs with -ing forms CNs with a linking element: n vowel/consonant n preposition n conjunction Lexicalized phrases CONVERSION: changing word class without – affixes: V > N, Adj > N, N > V, Adj > V, Adv > V, N > Adj, Adv > Adj, Adv > N,

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF NUMBER (1) Countable Ns: sg & pl valley; country; BUT: photo; BUT: VOICING PLURAL: wife; BUT: n MUTATED PLURAL: Englishman; BUT: n n -en PLURAL: child; BUT:

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF NUMBER (2) n UNINFLECTED PLURAL: sheep; BUT: n FOREIGN PLURAL: phenomenon; analysis; bacterium; BUT:

PLURAL IN COLLECTIVE NOUNS - in sg. followed by Vs in sg. : foliage; - in sg. followed by Vs in pl. : vermin; - in sg. used with Vs in sg. / pl. : committee; N with -s: n V in pl. : goods; scissors; V in sg: news; mumps; draughts; BUT: n n V in sg. / pl. : series; species;

PLURAL n IN COMPOUNDS bedroom postman brother-in-law passer-by forget-me-not OF NAMES OF NATIONS Switzerland: sg. a Swiss, pl. many Swiss, nation: the Swiss the Netherlands (Holland): sg. Dutchman, pl. Dutchmen, nation: the Dutch n

COUNTABILITY CNs: living beings / things with a definite form; some abstract Ns; sg/pl; articles; numerals; How many? UNs: sth can be measured but not counted, without shape/limits; 1 form; the; no numerals; How much? n n material, liquids, substances abstract qualities & ideas

COUNTS vs UNCOUNTS uncountable in English BUT countable in Slovak n uncountable in sg BUT in pl. = kinds, extension, intensity n n Both counts & uncounts

PARTITIVES n general: piece, bit, item n specific: ball, bar, cube, lump, sheet, slice , … n „containers“: bag, box, cup, jar, packet, tube, … Collective Ns followed by OF: board, flock, swarm, bunch, crop, set, …

CATEGORY OF GENDER Gender in OE & in Mod. E masculine; feminine; neuter; n gender-forming suffixes: gender expressed lexically: - by different words - by pronouns - by words indicating the gender n Ns with a generic term & a pair: horse; pig; sheep; monarch

COMMON GENDER singer, journalist, neighbour, student, foreigner, … = pronouns: male or female; A pet: F = cat, parrot M = dog, horse, canary

MASCULINE GENDER Personification (in poetry) n n n Ns - strength, inflexibility, resistance, necessity names of winds, rivers, mountains winter, summer, autumn, the sun, anger, love, murder, war, death, fatherland

FEMININE GENDER n Ns denoting tenderness, feableness, loveliness names of universities; countries, cities, & towns denoting political or economic units (indicating geographical units = neuter) n n the moon, the earth, mercy, charity, faith, hope, modesty, humility, justice, nature, luck, religion, ships, car

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF CASE OE = 4 cases: N, G, D, Acc. Mod. E: n the common case = uninflected form n the possessive/genitive case = inflected by: -´s in sg: a girl´s book; my mother-in-law´s book; Peter and Paul´s quarrel; -´ in pl: girls´ school; BUT: children´s toys; Dickens´/ Dickens´s novel;

DEPENDENT GENITIVE (1) n proper names n personal nouns n personal indefinite pronouns n names of animals n collective nouns n geographical names n institutional names

DEPENDENT GENITIVE (2) n expressions of time, space, weight, distance n names of seasons/months/days n with words: sun, moon, earth, world n with words: ship, boat, vessel n with personification (in poetry) n fixed expressions

THE ABSOLUTE / ELYPTICAL GENITIVE = without a following noun: n when it is clear what / who we are talking about n when referring to work-places, shops, banks, houses

THE DOUBLE GENITIVE = when a noun is determined by: n n articles numerals some demonstrative pronouns

THE OF-CONSTRUCTION / OF-GENITIVE refers to: n n n things when we cannot form a compound parts of things abstract nouns partitives geographical notions other nouns

DETERMINERS = words used in front of common nouns = determine (affect) the meaning of Ns CENTRAL DETERMINERS = mutually exclusive 1) articles 2) possessive 3) demonstrative 4) assertive; nonassertive 5) negative 6) universal 7) dual 8) WH-determiners

PREDETERMINERS = precede the required CD in a N phrase: n n quantifying fractional intensifying multiplying

POSTDETERMINERS = follow the required CD in a N phrase n n n cardinal numerals ordinal numerals many, much & its relatives the forms of other the phrasal quantifiers

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: the (1) = from OE demonstrative pronoun sé - particular object; sth that is known - specific or definite reference - C in sg. & in pl. ; U; - the definite object we know exactly from the context - unique things - political parties - the whole family - nouns of nationalities - in proverbs

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: the (2) - ordinal numerals - superlative degree – adj. - substantivized adj. - some places, even if we don´t know exactly which - with: same, very, right, wrong - the word: weather - some, many, none - most + preposition of - abstract Ns modified by an attribute in post-position

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE: a / an (1) = from OE numeral án (one) - meaning “one“: Ns denoting time, measure, weight, numerals - people or things in general - all the representatives of the class = “every“ - Ns introduced for the 1 st time - CNs - object belonging to a class = “some, any“ - with jobs

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE: a / an (2) - Ns of objects belonging to nationalities/politics/relig. - some illnesses - proper Ns: member of family; literature, art - Nouns denoting: period, population, distance, height, salary + OF constr. - after: there is - “what a. . . “, “such a. . . “ - personal names modified by “certain“

THE ZERO ARTICLE (1) = shows that Ns are used in a general sense - with pl CNs in general statements - abstract Ns - UNs of material - some illnesses - illnesses in -s - activities - sport games - in general: names of periods of a year, months, days, holidays

THE ZERO ARTICLE (2) names of: - languages - subjects - food - persons - forms of addressing people - titles & names - Ns expressing relationship - in certain prepositional phrases

THE USE OF ARTICLES No article: Articles: I like spring. It happened in the spring of 1968. It was spring. It was a cold spring. Day is meant for work, He won´t forget the day when. . . night for sleep. The night was warm. to be in prison (= prisoner) to be in the prison (= building) to leave school/at school (study) leave the school; a good school Is dinner ready? The dinner we had today was. . . speak French use the French language at work Dickens, the great novelist, . . . It´s a Dickens novel. /a Picasso

THE USE OF ARTICLES NO ARTICLE: THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: Africa, Asia, Europe the Antarctica, the Continent (Europe) England, Germany the UK, the Vatican, the Ukraine the Pacific (Ocean), the Black Sea, the Nile Lake Ontario, Lake Geneva the Ontario (no: lake) Mount Everest, Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, the Jungfrau, Elbrus, Snowdon, Ben Nevis the Alps, the Himalayas, Malta, Sicily, Madagaskar the Isle of Capri, the Isle of Man groups of islands: the Bahamas, the Azores, the Canaries the Gobi (Desert), the Sahara London / Westminster Bridge the Golden Gate Br. , the Tower Br.

PRONOUNS point out objects / qualities without naming them Specific: n personal n possessive n demonstrative n reflexive n interrogative n relative n reciprocal Indefinite: n universal n partitive n quantifying

PERSONAL PRONOUNS =refer to the person speaking, spoken to, spoken about Gram. categories of P, N, C, G – 3 rd sg. Common case - replaced by: n subjective case: I, you, … n objective case: me, you, …

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS =refer to parts of the body & personal belongings Gram. categories: P, N, G 2 forms: n the dependent / attribute form (possessive determiners): my, your, … n the independent / the nominal form: mine, yours

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS n express Nr contrast: this, that / these, those point at what is nearer / farther in time & space: this, these / that, those n demonstrative determiners n Such = of this/that kind; such as = for example Same = always with “the“

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS = indicate - action expressed by V passes back to S: myself, yourself, … yourselves, … Gram. categories: P, N, G – 3 rd sg. n n n n as direct / indirect O after a preposition after “by“ meaning alone as part of the predicative of the V to be in fixed phrases to emphasize sth. used with reflexive Vs

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS = form questions; always precede the V Who: 3 case-forms - S; O; G/Possessive (determiner); n only for persons What: n for things, for an activity, to ask for a person´s profession, character, etc. , in idiomatic expressions Which: choice among a certain number of sth n for things & persons; sg. / pl; n often followed by an of-phrase Compound interrogatives = used for emphasis

RELATIVE PRONOUNS = point out back to a N/Pron. = antecedent. Forms: n personal: subject who – obj. whom – poss. whose n non-personal: which/that – which – whose What – when an antecedent is not expressed Compound relative pronouns Relative as: after such & after the same (also: that)

RELATIVE PRONOUN THAT n n n for persons/things in restrictive relative clauses left out of a sentence no preposition after: - the superlative - most indefinite pronouns - opening phrases - antecedent = person & thing n

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS n n express mutual action / relation the subject = always in pl. Each other implies only two One another = two or more persons The common case The genitive case

UNIVERSAL PRONOUNS (1) ALL: n persons/things n in sg/pl n = unity n as a pronoun meaning: everything n as an adjective meaning: the whole of n in some expressions BOTH: with pl N & pl V

UNIVERSAL PRONOUNS (2) EACH: 2 or more persons/things = separately n a limited number n after of & at the end n pronoun & determiner EVERY: n more than 2 = meaning: altogether n unlimited Nr n after: nearly, not n only as determiner n in idiomatic phrases Compounds

PARTITIVE PRONOUNS (1) SOME: n determ. /nominal; CNs & UNs; compounds n indef. quant. /Nr; contrast; particular but unidentified n affirmative; interrog. =positive reply; n before numerals ANY: n no matter who/which/what; CNs & UNs; compounds n interrogative, negative n indirect questions n conditional clauses

PARTITIVE PRONOUNS (2) NO: n determ. function; “not any, not a“; CNs, UNs; n compounds = nominal function n sg V; replaced by any-; NONE: n nominal function; sg & pl; of-constructions THE OTHER ANOTHER THE OTHERS, OTHERS; EITHER, NEITHER

QUANTIFYING PRONOUNS (1) MANY, FEW: n pl. , with CNs MUCH, LITTLE: n sg. , with UNs In affirm. = a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a good deal of, MANY, MUCH: interrog. & neg. MUCH – adverbially FEW, LITTLE = negative meaning A FEW, A LITTLE = positive

QUANTIFYING PRONOUNS (2) SEVERAL: n in pl. , determ. & nom. n with of-construction ENOUGH: n with CNs & UNs n determ. & nom. function ONE: - numerical - replacive (word-substitute, not with UNs) - indefinite - after WHICH;

ADJECTIVES / MODIFIERS = limit or qualify words by describing them According to the position in a phrase or sentence: Attributive adjectives Predicative adjectives Constructions with comparison: as … as, not so … as, than

GRADABLE ADJECTIVES = with words: very, too, enough n n n the positive the comparative the superlative 2 types of gradability: synthetic analytical

NON-GRADABLE ADJECTIVES = absolute in their meaning Irregular (suppletive) forms Spelling rules SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES: n wholly n partially

ADJECTIVES according to their meaning: QUALITATIVE/descriptive: size, shape, colour, mental & physical qualities RELATIVE: through their relation to materials, place, time, action Pre-modifiers; Post-modifiers Common pairs of adjectives (participles) WO of adj. : O – S – A – Sh – C – O – M (past part. )

MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES n primary / simple n converted derivative: prefixes: pre-, hyper-, neg. : im-, in-, il-, ir-, un-, dis-; n suffixes: -ic, -y, -less, -ish, -ful, -able, -ive, -ant, -ent, -ous, -en-, -an, -al, -ly,

MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES Compound Adj: N + Adj N + pres. part. N + past part. Adj + N + -ed Num + N + -ed Adv + N + -ed

ADVERBS express some circumstances that attend an action, state, or point out some characteristic features of an action or a quality n answer questions: HOW? WHEN? WHERE? HOW OFTEN? TO WHAT EXTENT? IN WHAT ORDER? n

ADVERBS can modify: n Vs n Adj. n indefinite pronouns n other Adv. n Ns n sentences The modifying adverb = an intensifier.

ADVERBS According to their structure: n simple n derivative n compound n composite Adverbial phrases

ADVERBS According to their meaning = adverbs of: n manner n place & direction n time n frequency n degree, measure & quantity

GRADABILITY OF ADVERBS GRADABLE: n synthetic n analytical Irregular forms of comparison NON-GRADABLE 2 forms of adverbs; the same forms of Adv without -ly & Adj

POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE - manner: n n Look at this photo carefully. It snowed heavily. Mary angrily slammed the door. Quietly, he moved towards the door. - degree: n n n quite good quite well I quite like it.

POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE - place and direction: n n She read quietly in the library all the afternoon. I went to London by train. Outside it was cold but indoors it was warm. She lives in a small house in a village outside Norwich in Norfolk

POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE - of time: n We went to theatre yesterday. n Yesterday we went to theatre. n I have just finished. n He is still working. n He still works. n Have you finished yet? n No, I haven´t finished yet.

POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE - frequency: He seldom smiles at her. n Sometimes we go to the cinema. n Do you usually have cream in your coffee? n I get paid on Fridays usually. OFTEN: Do you come here often? I don´t come here often. n

VERBS = word class (in syntax: clause element) Grammatical categories of Vs: Tense: present & past Aspect: perfective/non-perf. & progressive/non-progr. Voice: active & passive Mood: indicative, imperative, subjunctive

BASIC TYPES OF A COMPLEX FINITE VP n modal n perfective n progressive n passive A sentence: n single verb: finite verb phrase (VP) = simple n cluster of Vs: VP = complex A complex VP = up to 4 auxiliaries in front of the main V

VERBS According to the function within a VP 3 classes of Vs: n primary auxiliary Vs n modal auxiliary Vs n lexical (main, full) Vs According to the finiteness: n finite V forms n non-finite V forms

VERBS According to morphological forms: n regular Vs n irregular Vs REGULAR VERBS = 4 morphological forms: n the base form n the -ed form n the -s form n -ing form

IRREGULAR VERBS = either 5 or 3 forms, classified into: n 3 forms alike n 3 forms different n past tense equals -ed participle n V base equals -ed participle n V base equals the past tense

PRIMARY AUXILIARIES express gram. contrasts in P, N, T PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERB TO BE: unique, 8 forms; (un)contracted negative forms 2 functions: n as an aspect auxiliary for the progressive n as a passive auxiliary Forms: present, past, present perfect, past perfect, future, future perfect, present progressive, past progressive

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERB TO HAVE Forms: n base, -s, past, -ing, (-ed participle only as a lexical V) n (un)contracted negative n combined with past part. – perfective VP Lexical (main) V: have (= possess) = stative V, not used in progres. aspect/in the passive Forms in simple tenses: present, past, present perfect, past perfect, future, future perfect;

HAVE vs HAVE GOT = often interchangeable, but have got: n basically = perfect form of the V get (obtain) n can also mean to posses in Br. E – more common used for present reference (had = for the past form) n have gotten in Am. E = have obtained Have: Questions: by operators (Am) – more in Br. E Negatives: by operators; with have got = by inversion Have (eat, drink, enjoy, take)= dynamic V: in progress. Have + determiner + N = to perform an activity

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERB TO DO Forms: n present, -s, past; Lexical V (to perform): -ing, -ed n (un)contracted negative Used in: n the negative (imperative, simple present/past) n questions n tag questions n emphatic or persuasive constructions n inversion caused by introductory words (negative adverbs: never, hardly, seldom)

MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS n n n the speaker´s attitude toward the action or state indicated by the infinitive defective, not inflected followed by bare infinitive cannot form imperative do not have infinitive forms negative & interrogative = without the auxiliary DO

MODAL CAN I CAN / COULD (+ periphrastic form) CAN = ability, capability; CANNOT/CAN´T = inability, incapability CAN expresses: n physical & mental abilities n asking & giving permission n with Vs with perception n possibility

MODAL CAN, COULD CAN + passive infinitive (to be + past participle) CAN´T + passive infinitive referring to the past: CAN´T + perfect infinitive (have + -ed participle) n COULD + perfect infinitive COULD NOT + perfect infinitive

MODAL MAY, MIGHT I MAY / MIGHT (+ periphrastic form) n permission n in questions MAY = more formal than CAN MIGHT in more polite requests MUSTN´T n used in the negative n stronger prohibition than MAY NOT MAY n possibility (= it is possible) n + present infinitive: expect/guess about pres. /future

MODAL MAY, MIGHT MAY/MIGHT + perfect infinitive (have + -ed partic. ) n expect/guess about past happening MIGHT n expresses reproach MIGHT + perfect infinitive n action not carried out in the past MAY n as a subjunctive auxiliary (expresses wish)

MODAL MUST I MUST (to have to – had to – will have to) = to be obliged to / to be compelled to - expresses: n inescapable obligation, duty or necessity n in questions = the meaning of a reproach 2 ways of negating: NEEDN´T, DON´T HAVE TO n absence of obligation MUSTN´T n a strong way of forbidding to do sth.

MODAL MUST (HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO) = interchangeable n n obligation comes from the speaker stronger obligation for other persons MUST in notices, documents, commands MUST in pressing invitation & emphatic advice MUST + present infinitive n deduction refers to the present MUST + perfect infinitive n deduction about the past

MODAL SHALL n volition (mostly for 1 st sg. ) n in questions = obligation or suggestion n insistence, threat n in legal documents = in 2 nd, 3 rd person

MODAL SHOULD n in reported speech n in offers, suggestions, requests n escapable obligation, duty n probability n after if & in case = suggests a less strong possibility n recommendations from an outside authority n our own subjective opinion=connected: If I were you

MODAL OUGHT TO n more objective n talk about laws, duties, regulations SHOULD/OUGHT TO + perfect infinitive n action was not carried out OUGHT TO + perfect infinitive n probability in the past

MODAL WILL expresses: n prediction about the future n about the present n giving orders n habitual predictive meaning in conditional n willingness to do sth. n intention to make promises or threats n to make requests or to give orders WILL + perfect infinitive n logical deduction about the past

MODAL WOULD n past form of will in reported speech about past habits & characteristic behaviour (not with stative Vs) n n as conditional n more polite request than WILL n after I wish / If only I. . . to express willingness

MARGINAL / SEMI-MODAL NEED n n n in the negative Yes/No questions after negative adverbs (hardly, seldom, rarely) in formal style, expressing doubts in informal use = ordinary (lexical) V form NEEDN´T + perfect infinitive n sb did it but it was not necessary

MARGINAL / SEMI-MODAL DARE n in questions & negatives n with bare infinitive or a full V n in informal style - the negative DAREN´T: YOU DARE! or: DON´T YOU DARE! I DARE SAY = probably

MARGINAL / SEMI-MODAL USED TO = past habit = in the simple past form: n with dynamic Vs n also with stative Vs USED NOT or USEDN´T: n in the negative & questions, however, more common = using DID

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE: THE ACTIVE VOICE The clause with transitive Vs contains: 3 grammatical elements: S + V + O 3 semantic units: A + P (Action) + G SUBJECT = AGENT if V is in the active voice OBJECT = GOAL In EN: if the WO is changed: = both gram. & semantic roles of Ns change In SK: if the WO is reversed, the roles remain clear.

THE PASSIVE VOICE = the subject - not interpreted as the agent AGENT preposition by, or unexpressed (if unknown/unimport. ) Emphasis = on the action, not on people performing it. Sth that the AGENT perform the action = prep. with After ditransitive Vs: either OBJECT = SUBJECT of a passive clause

THE FORMS OF THE PASSIVE VOICE = to be + -ed participle n n n present simple: John is helped by Mary. present progressive present perfect simple past progressive past perfect simple future perfect present infinitive perfect infinitive -ing form perfect -ing form

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF ASPECT n n reflects the way in which the verb action is “regarded“ or „experienced“ with respect to time is closely connected in meaning with tense Present perfective: action continuing up to the pres. He has been at school for two hours. (probably still there). This meaning of current relevance contrasts with past tense meaning: He was at school an hour ago. (now he is out. )

TWO TYPES OF ASPECTUAL CONTRAST 1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT 2) THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) ASPECT 1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT n is associated with time orientation+ various time indicators: for, already, since, so far, lately, recently, up to now, how long, ever. . .

1. 1 THE PRESENT PERFECT = have + -ed participle n n n “past happening related to present time“ past events with results in the present time indefinite events in a period leading up to the present time habit in a period leading up to the present time state leading up to the present time

1. 2 THE PAST PERFECT = had + -ed participle n n n n “past in the past“ conjun. after, when = which event took place earlier describing one event following another in the past event in -when clause = completed before the event in the past simple started in reported speech after past Vs in events looking back from a point in the past to express an unrealized hope, wish

1. 3 THE FUTURE PERFECT = will + perfect infinitive n at a certain time in the future sth will be completed / achieved (often used with by & time reference)

2 THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT = to be + -ing form n refers to activity in progress, & therefore suggests that: n the activity is temporary (i. e. of limited duration) n it need not be complete

2. 1 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE = am/is/are + -ing n actions in progress at the moment of speaking n temporary situation, activity is taking place in the present time & will continue for a limited period n future reference with Vs of motion (now, just, at the moment) (arrive, come, go, leave) n activities planned for the future n repeated actions – unexpectedly/annoyingly (always, constantly)

2. 2 PAST PROGRESSIVE = was/were + -ing an action in progress at a specified time in the past n an action started before the event in the past simple & was in progress when the event in the PS occured n two parallel actions were in progress at the same time (while) n progress with adverbials beginning with all n (all morning, all day, all night) n n repeated actions the background for a narrative in the past

2. 3 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE = has/have been +ing n an activity taking place in the recent period up to the present n started in the past & continues up to the present & possibly into the future (since, for)

2. 4 PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE = had been + -ing n describes an activity looking back from the past

2. 5 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE = shall/will be + -ing n an activity going on at a particular time or over a particular period in the future (we mention the future time) n future activity is the result of a previous decision (arrangement) n planned activities in the future n asking (politely) about people´s plans

2. 6 FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE = shall/will + have been + -ing n activity leading up to time in the future usually mentioned – both the particular point in the future (on Saturday, soon, next year) & the period of time until this point n (for a year, for 20 minutes)

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF MOOD indicates the factual, nonfactual, or counterfactual status of prediction n THE INDICATIVE/DECLARATIVE MOOD n facts of which the speaker = relatively confident THE IMPERATIVE MOOD n commands, instructions n 2 nd sg/pl (no distinction) = the base of the V n 1 st & 3 rd sg/pl = periphrastically

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD n replaced by other constructions in contemporary EN MANDATIVE SUB. : lack of regular concord btw S + FV n in subord. that-clause after Vs in the main clause: advise, ask, beg, decide, demand, desire, insist, intend n after Adj (anxious, determined) with a personal S or (essential, important, urgent) & impersonal it-constr. n after Ns demand, intention, order, request, suggestion

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD The FORMULAIC Subjunctive n in certain set expressions The WERE-Subjunctive n hypothetical n conditional & wish clauses

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF TENSE n relates the time of the action, or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of utterance Time = extra-ling. notion (past, present, future time) Tense = ling. category (no identity between time & tense) EN: THE PRESENT & THE PAST

FUTURE n by modals, simple present & progressive To be + infinitive: n formal arrangements, instructions, orders n in if-clauses: sth takes place first before sth else Be about to, be on the point of Be due to: refers to scheduled times

PRESENT TENSE n n state present = timeless statements, eternal truths the habitual present – for repeated events with adverbs of frequency instantaneous present = with dynamic Vs when action begins & ends appr. at the moment of speech: It is common in: n commentaries n demonstrations n declarations n

PRESENT TENSE the historic present=past time narrative, vivid description n referring to future time: action in future & time adverbials n in conditional & temporal clauses: n if, unless, after, before , when, as soon as

PAST TENSE - denotes definite past time, adv. referring to the past (specific) events n states n habitual action n attitudinal past = reflects a tentative state of mind (= more polite effect than by using the present) n hypothetical past = contrary to the speaker´s beliefs (if, wish) n indirect (reported) speech (so-called back-shift)

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS 1) THE INFINITIVE Forms: - present infinitive active - present infinitive passive - present progressive infinitive active - perfect/past infinitive passive - perfect/past progressive infinitive active

TYPES OF THE INFINITIVE bare infinitive: n n n modals let make had better would rather Vs of perception

TYPES OF THE INFINITIVE to-infinitive: n some lexical Vs n to be + adj. n Vs + Obj. n indicating purpose

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS 2) THE ING-FORM n -ing participle - in progressive aspect - as participial adjective gerund can take place of V or N: n - uncounts - after the genitive

THE -ING FORM Forms: - present active - present passive - past/perfect active, - past/perfect passive Used after: n n Vs of (dis)liking some lexical Vs Adj + prep phrasal Vs

INFINITIVE vs –ING FORM can`t bear, hate, like, love + INFINITIVE: =we have feelings beforehand about what may happen so that meaning of Vs = (not)wish, (not)want/hope = speaker talks about himself as agent performing acts + -ING FORM: = if it is the event, not the act that is focus of attention = speaker himself is not a performer in the event

INFINITIVE vs –ING FORM begin, start, cease + INFINITIVE for events that are: - impersonal - involuntary - when begin/start – in the progressive form + -ING FORM: - for voluntary actions

INFINITIVE vs –ING FORM try + INF. : attempt, endeavour + -ING: experiment with remember + INF. : not to forget beforehand to do sth + -ING: recall, recollect sth afterwards go on + INF. : proceed (to do sth else) + -ING: continue

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS 3) THE -ed FORM The –ed inflectional morpheme (added to the base): n in the past form n in the –ed participle form Used: n to form the passive (to be + -ed) n to express perfective aspect (have/had + -ed) n to begin a subordinate clause: Provided that…