Gerunds are verbal nouns ending in –ing. We can use them • As the subject of a verb Learning English is not too difficult • As the object of a verb I like studying different languages • After a preposition I’m looking forward to going to England on holiday • After certain verbs • After some expressions with it It’s (not) worth … It’s pointless … It’s a nuisance … It’s no good … It’s no use trying to explain It’s no use …
Infinitives We can use infinitives with to: • To express purpose I bought this book to read on the train • After too + adjective or after (not) enough The amount is not enough to cover the expenses This exercise is too difficult to do in ten minutes • As the object of a verb after words like where, when and how I don’t know how to switch the computer on • After certain verbs
Verb + to-infinitive • Some verbs are followed directly by the to-infinitive and do not need an object Agree, aim, appear, arrange, attempt, be able, be likely, claim, decide, deserve, fail, hope, learn, manage, offer, plan, promise, refuse, seem, tend, try I decided to do an animal management course during my last year at school • Some verbs are always followed by an object + to-infinitive Advise, allow, encourage, force, get, persuade, remind, teach, tell, warn This course has taught me to respect all animals and overcome my fears (not This course has taught to respect all animals)
Verb + to-infinitive • Get is used with an object + to-infinitive when it means persuade or make If you want to get your teachers to notice your work you should make sure you hand it in on time • Some verbs can be used with or without an object + toinfinitive Ask, choose, dare, expect, help, intend, need, prefer, prepare, want I didn’t want to touch the snakes They wanted us to touch the snakes
Verb (+preposition) + -ing • Some verbs are followed by –ing Avoid, approve of, can’t help, can’t stand, carry on, consider, deny, don’t mind, enjoy, feel like, finish, give up, imagine, include, insist on, involve, keep, mention, mind, practise, put off, recommend, resist, suggest, think of/about I prefer dealing with the customers but I don’t mind cleaning out the animals and feeding them. • When a verb is followed by a preposition (except to) then the following verb is always –ing I was thinking about doing another course
Verb + to-infinitive or -ing • Some verbs are followed by either to-infinitive or –ing with little difference in meaning Attempt, begin, bother, continue, hate, like, love, prefer, start I’ve started working at a pet shop (= I’ve started to work at a pet shop) • Would like/would love/would prefer are followed by the toinfinitive I’d really like to work in either a zoo or a safari park
Verb + to-infinitive + -ing Go on One action follows another After university she went on to get a job as a vet (= she finished university and then she got a job as a vet An action is repeated or continued She went on talking even though the film had started Remember You remember before you do the action As long as you remember to do what you’ve been told, it’s fine You remember after doing the action I remember feeling really scared Forget The action did not happen The action happened I forgot to post my application I’ll never forget meeting you form that cold winter’s day (=we did meet) This form is usually in the negative Stop There are two actions and the first stops so that the second can begin I stopped to ask the way There is one action which stops I’m going to stop studying for a while
Verb + to-infinitive + -ing Try Make an effort to do something. You may not always be successful I try to find out why he’s barking Experiment with doing something She tried adding a bit more sugar but is still tasted horrible Need The subject of the sentence will do the action I need to mend my jeans (= I will mend them) There is a passive meaning My jeans need mending (= we don’t know who will mend them)
Verb + object + infinitive without to Feel, hear, help, let, make, notice, see, watch • Make and let are always followed by an object + infinitive without to They made us handle all kinds of animals including spiders and snakes • When make is used in the passive we use the to-infinitive I was made to handle all kinds of animals including spiders and snakes • Help can be followed by an infinitive with or without to The course helped me understand my own dog better (= The course helped me to understand my own dog better)
Negatives • If we want to make the second verb negative we use not I chose not to study at this college I enjoy not working late
A/an/one • We use a before nouns and noun phrases that begin with a consonant sound. If the noun or noun phrase starts with a vowel letter but begins with a consonant sound, we also use a A university A European A one-parent family • We use an before words that begin with a vowel sound An orange An Italian An umbrella These include words that begin with a silent letter h An hour And abbreviations said as individual letters that begin with A, E, F, H, I, L, M, N, O, R, S or X An MP An FBI agent An IOU
A/an/one • Abbreviations said as a words A FIFA official but an OPEC meeting A NATO general • We use a/an (not one) to talk about a particular but unspecified person, thing or event I really need a cup of coffee • We also use a/an, not one, in number and quantity expressions such as Three times a year half an hour a day or so a few • We use a rather than one in the pattern a… of… with possessives, as in She’s a colleague of mine
A/an/one • Before a singular countable noun one and a/an both refer to one thing We’ll be in Australia for one year (or … a year) • Using one in sentences gives a little more emphasis to the length of time, quantity, amount, etc. He weighs one hundred and twenty kilos! (using one emphasizes one thing or person rather than two or more) • We use one rather than a/an if we want to emphasize that we are talking about only one thing or person rather than two or more Do you want one sandwich or two? • We use one, not a/an, in the pattern one…other/another Close one eye, and then the other
A/an/one • We use one, not a/an, in the pattern such as one day, one evening, one spring, etc. to mean a particular, but unspecified day, evening, spring, etc. Hope to see you again one day • Some nouns can be used uncountably when we talk about the whole substance or idea, but countably when we talk about an instance or more than one instance of it. When this nouns are used countably we can use a/an I don’t drink coffee Would you like a coffee? (= a cup of coffee)
A/an, The, Zero Article • We use the when we talk about things which are unique – there is only one of them (or one set of them) The world, the sky, the sun, the horizon, the travel industry • We also refer to general geographical areas with the as in The beach, the countryside, the seaside, the forest Where ‘the country’ or ‘the countryside’ means ‘the area where there are no towns’ • We also talk about The past, the present, the future • Some nouns like this can be used with zero article to refer to a concept in general The flowers grow best in sandy soil and sun (=sunshine)
A/an, The, Zero Article • If we want to describe a particular instance of these we can use a/an What are your plans for the future? She dreamt of a future where she could spend more time painting • We can use the when we make generalizations about classes of things usingular countable nouns The computer has revolutionized publishing (this refers to computers in general) (not A computer has revolutionized publishing [computers in general have done this, not an individual computer]) • We can use a plural countable noun instead of the + singular countable noun Computers are an important research tool
A/an, The, Zero Article • If the is used with plural and uncountable nouns we refer to a specific thing or group The computers have arrived. Where shall I put them? • When we define sth or say what is typical of a particular class of people or things, we generally use a/an rather than the A garden is there to give you pleasure, not to be a consonant worry
A/an, The, Zero Article • We use a/an to say what a person’s job is, was, or will be She was a company director when she retired • When we give a person’s job title, or their unique position, we use the or zero article, not a/an She’s been appointed (the) head of the company I’m a production manager an Fino (= there may be more than one production manager) • After the position of, the post of, the role of we use zero article before a job title Dr Simons has taken on the position of Head of Department
A/an, The, Zero Article We usually use zero article before the name of an individual person or place. However we use the • When there are two people with the same name and we want to specify which one we are talking about That’s not the Stephen Fraser I went to school with • When we want to emphasize that the person we are referring to is the most famous person with the name. The is stressed and pronounced [ði: ] Do they mean the Ronald Reagan, or someone else? • With an adjective to describe a person, or another noun which tells us their job The late Buddy Holy, the artist William Turner • When we talk about a family as a whole The Robinsons are away this weekend
A/an, The, Zero Article • We use a/an, or sometimes zero article, with a name when referring to the particular excellent qualities of the person named Jane plays tennis well, but she’ll never be (a) Steffi Graf • We use a/an when we refer to an individual example of a product made by a particular manufacturer or a work by a particular artist I’ve just bought a Mercedes • We can use a/an before a person’s name if we don’t know the person ourselves Dr Perch is here for you (= I know Dr Perch) There’s a Dr Kenneth Perch on the phone (= I haven’t heard of him before)
A/an, The, Zero Article • In stories and jokes in conversation, this is commonly used instead of a/an to introduce a new person or thing. Using this highlights the person of thing as the topic of what is to come next This man (= a man) goes into a chemist and he says… • We use the before a superlative adjective when it is followed by a noun or defining phrase He is the finest young player around at the moment • We can often leave out the, particularly in an informal style, when there is no noun or defining phrase after the superlative adjective -Why did you decide to stay in this hotel? – It was (the) cheapest
A/an, The, Zero Article • With plural and uncountable nouns, zero article is used to talk about generally, without definite people or things in mind. The is used when we assume the listener or reader will understand who or what we are referring to, or when other words in the noun phrase make the reference specific The government has promised not to tax books (= books generally) The books have arrived (= the books you ordered) • We often use zero article with the names of holidays, special times of the year, months, and days of the week I’ll see you on Saturday They arrived on a Saturday as far as I can remember (we are only interested in the day of the week, not which particular Saturday) They arrived on the Saturday after my birthday (a particular Saturday, specifying which one)
• With winter, summer, spring, autumn and New year (meaning the holiday period), we can use either zero article or the In (the) summer I try to spend as much time as I can in the garden • We use the when it is understood or we go on to specify which summer, spring, etc. we mean I’d like to go skiing in the autumn (= this year) • We say ‘in the New Year’ to mean near the beginning of next year I’ll see you again in the New Year • We can use It/That was… + a/an noun + modifying phrase to describe the features of a particular holiday, season, or other period of time and say that is was somehow special when compared with others That was a winter I’ll never forget (= compared to other winters it was unforgettable) That was the winter we went to Norway (= a statement about a particular winter)
A/an, The, Zero Article • We use zero article with times of the day and night such as midnight, midday, noon If possible, I’d like it finished by midday But we can say either the dawn or dawn He got back into bed and waited for (the) dawn • We use the + morning/afternoon/evening for a day which is understood or already specified I enjoyed the morning, but in the afternoon the course was boring • We use by + zero article to talk about means of transport and communication, including go/travel by car/taxi/bus/plane/train/air/sea, communicate/contact by post/email/phone I generally go by bus to work
A/an, The, Zero Article • We often use zero article in patterns where repeated or related words are joined by a preposition and used with a general meaning The government makes grants according to criteria that differ from region to region Other examples include person to person, back to back, end to end, face to face, side by side, start to finish, day by day, put pen to paper
Punctuations (Comma) We use a comma to show a short pause which separates parts of a sentence • In a list There’s a bed, a wardrobe, a table and two chairs in my room • In a procedure Go down this street, turn right at the junction and it’s on the left • Before and after however, of course, to a certain extent, for example/for instance, like and such as There are many places to visit, like the lake • Before but, so, then I like my bike, but I’m selling it • At the end of the first part of a sentence which begins with if, when, after, before, while If I see the book I want, I’ll buy it
Punctuations (Comma) • Before extra information (and after it if there is no full stop) I like my room, which is nice and light. My room, which is nice and light, is very small • Between a name and a description I want to buy Face 2 Face, an English book • Before question tags You can look at your map, OK? It’s nice weather, isn’t it? • After a phrase or an adverb which introduces a sentence In addition, many disabled people suffer discrimination at work • If an adverb describes an adjective, commas are not needed However careful you are, accidents can always happen
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