Figures of speech Words are either literal

Figures of speech

Words are either literal or figurative n Literal 原意 n Words used in their original meanings are used literally. n Figurative 比喻义 n Words used in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up pictures in the reader’s or listener’s mind are used figuratively.

colourful n In “a colourful garden” the word colourful is used in its literal sense to describe the many different colours of the flowers n in “a colourful life” or “a colourful career” the word is used in its figurative sense because neither life or career has any colour.

The most common figures of speech n Simile 直喻 n Metaphor 暗喻

What’s the difference? n Literal n “He ran quickly down the street. ” n Simile n “He ran like a hare down the street. ” n Metaphor n “He hared（如野兔般疾走奔跑） down the street. ”

simile n Simile is a figure of speech in which two quite different things are compared as they seem similar in a way. n This kind of comparison is normally introduced by “like” or “as”.

I am hungry as a horse. You run like a rabbit. She is happy as a clam. He is sneaky as a snake.

Example of simile n The mysterious object. . . n has a face that's as round as the moon n has hands like golden arrows n is as tall as a tower block n has a voice like a gong（锣） n and is as famous as any pop star. n Big Ben

Example of simile n Time flies like an arrow n Fruit flies like a banana（果蝇爱香蕉）

metaphor n A figure of speech which consists in substituting for the name of a thing the name of an attribute（ 属性）of it or of something closely related. n An implied comparison between two objects that are generally different but share a recognizable similarity without the use of “like” or “as”.

The girl was a fish in the water. The clown was a feather floating away.

Plato n “…the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor. It is the one thing that cannot be learnt from others, and it is also a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception （直觉） of the similarity in dissimilars. ”

Example of metaphor n Life is a yo-yo（哟哟球）. It's a series of ups and downs.

Mixed metaphors n One danger in using metaphors is the possibility of beginning with one comparison and ending with another n This is called a mixed metaphor （混合隐喻；多重隐喻）

Example of mixed metaphors n “We must solve the root problem, or the line will be drawn in the sand, and we’ll be back in the soup again. ” n Root compares the problem to a plant n Line drawn in the sand means an uncrossable boundary n Soup is a food and means being in a mess

Mixed metaphors n Shakespeare n Hamlet proposes “to take arms against a sea of troubles”（是起而反抗这数不清 的忧伤） n The Tall Guy (1989 film) n “She‘s like a hungry leopard(豹) in full bloom. "

Extended metaphor n J F Kennedy n “The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavour（努力， 尝试）will light our country and all who serve it, and the glow（微弱稳定的光） from that fire can truly light the world. "

The flowers danced in the wind. The friendly gates welcomed us. The Earth coughed and choked in all of the pollution.

Personification拟人 n This involves turning an object – either inanimate（无生命的）or natural – into a human or animal form, with human or animal actions and feelings.

Example of personification n My car whines（哀鸣；惨叫）in pain as it climbs up steep（陡峭的 ） hills. n The table groaned（呻吟） under the weight of the food placed on it.

Metonymy借代 n The substitution of a noun for another closely associated noun. n The substituted noun derives（获得 ） its meaning in the context it is used by the association produced in the readers mind.

Example of metonymy n In contemporary English when we speak of a statement from the “White House” we understand that this is not a talking building, but an official communication with the authority of the President of the United States who lives in the White House. n The pen is mightier（强而有力的） than the sword.

Hyperbole夸张 n Hyperbole is a figure of speech which contains a deliberate exaggeration（故 意夸大） n – to coin（创造（新词语） ） a phrase, this is when writers ‘go over the top’ with their use of language, suggesting that something is the strongest, the best, the greatest, which of course distorts（使变 形；扭曲；使失真 ）the truth.

Example of hyperbole n I’m so hungry I could eat a horse n I've told you a thousand times, stop exaggerating. n I’ve not seen you for ages. n It’s raining dogs and cats.

understatement含蓄陈述 n The opposite of hyperbole n Stating an idea in words that are less strong than anticipated（预期的）. n to make something appear smaller or less important than it really is.

Example of understatement n It does seem to be raining a little. n There’s a few cars out today, aren’t there?

euphemism委婉语 n Words or phrases that substitute an agreeable or inoffensive term for a more direct one that might embarrass or suggest something unpleasant n Profane(非宗教的; 世俗的)words and expressions are generally taken from three areas: religion, toilets, and sex.

religion n God – gosh/golly n Jesus – jeez n Devil – Old Nick

Toilets n men's room / women's room n the little boy's room / the little girl's room n restroom n Bathroom n Wash my hands n the head, (sailor's terminology术语) n latrine (common military term)

sex n Sleep with someone n Shag n Bonk n Exchanging bodily fluids n Getting laid

death n Passed away n Passed on n Departed n Kicked the bucket n Bought the farm n Pushing up daisies n Sleeping with the fishes(掉水里淹死)

irony n Stating one thing while meaning the exact opposite. n or the person could be trying to be rude, even though the words used are seemingly polite etc.

Example of irony n Your friend turns up in ripped（撕裂的） jeans. With a smirk（傻笑；假笑）, you say, "I see you have put on your best clothes!"

sarcasm n Sarcasm is a form of irony that is widely used in English especially when people are being humorous. n Generally the sarcastic speaker or writer means the exact opposite of the word they use, often intending to be rude or to laugh at the person the words are addressed（针对） to.

Example of sarcasm n I love being married. It’s so great to find that one special person you want to annoy for the rest of your life n I'd insult you, but you're not bright enough to notice. n Not all men are annoying. Some are dead.

Synecdoche（提喻 ： 是不直接说某一事物的名称，而是借事物的 本身所呈现的各种对应的现象来表现该事物的这样一种修辞手段。提喻又称举偶 法。） n A figure by which a more comprehensive term is used for a less comprehensive or vice versâ; as whole for part for whole, genus（类， 种；属） for species for genus, etc.

Example of synedoche n All hands were summoned to the quarter-deck(后甲板), " n where "hands" is used to describe sailors.

Antithesis（对比） n A direct contrast in which two sets of figures are set in opposition to one another.

Example of antithesis n “And so, my fellow Americans, ask not, what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country. ” ——J F Kennedy's Inaugural Address Winston Churchill, in which he challenges the Luftwaffe (the German air force): n “You do your worst - and we will do our best. ” n To err is human, to forgive divine（神圣的； 非凡的）.

Parallelism（排比） n Parallelism refers to the figure of speech that expresses relevant ideas in the same or similar grammatical structures. n It helps make a sentence brief, smooth and coherent(连贯的)and give it rhythm, balance and force.

Example of parallelism n To have and to hold from this day forward, n for better for worse, n for richer for poorer, n in sickness and in health, n to love and to cherish, n till death us do part.

Example of parallelism n The boy was sitting under a tree, singing a song and repairing his bicycle. n The boy was sitting under a tree, n singing a song n and repairing his bicycle.

oxymoron n A rhetorical figure by which contradictory or incongruous(不一致的)terms are conjoined(结 合；连结)so as to give point to the statement or expression; n an expression, in its superficial or literal meaning self-contradictory or absurd, but involving a point. n (Now often loosely(宽松地)or erroneously(错 误地；) used as if merely = a contradiction in terms, an incongruous conjunction. )

Example of oxymoron n Pretty ugly n Half naked n Civil war n Final draft n Mobile home n Almost perfect n Dry ice n Open secret n White gold n Working holiday n Old news n Minor crisis n Original copy n Act naturally n Voice mail n Only choice

Pun(双关语；俏皮话) n A play on words n "the humorous use of a word, or of words which are formed or sounded alike but have different meanings, in such a way as to play on two or more of the possible applications; a play on words. "

Example of pun n I do it for the pun of it. n Seven days without water makes one weak. n What’s wrong with this fish? Long time no sea. n What do lawyers do when they die? Lie still. n Try our sweet corn. You will smile from ear to ear(笑得合不拢嘴).

Example of pun n Old photographers never die, they just have flash backs. n That new mystery novel has a killer start to it. n I wondered why the baseball was getting bigger. Then it hit me. n He wanted to fly a kite, but it was over his head. n The hospital lab is recruiting. They're looking for new blood.

Cliché（陈词滥调，老生常谈） n A cliché is a hackneyed（陈腐的；平庸 的）phrase or expression. n The phrase may once have been fresh or striking（显著突出的）, but it has become tired through over-use.

Example of cliché n No pain, no gain n Every coin has two sides n Last, but not least, avoid cliché‘s like the plague（瘟疫）.

Paradox（自相矛盾，悖论） n Paradox is a figure of speech in which a statement appears to be selfcontradictory, but contains something of a truth. n Paradox is used for emphasis or stylistic effect.

Example of paradox n The child is father to the man. n Cowards（懦夫） die many times before their death.

Zeno’s paradox(芝诺, 希腊哲学家) n The Tortoise challenged Achilles to a race, claiming that he would win as long as Achilles gave him a small head start （先行一点点). n Achilles laughed at this, for of course he was a mighty warrior and swift of foot, whereas the Tortoise was heavy and slow.

Zeno’s paradox n “How big a head start do you need? ” he asked the Tortoise with a smile. n “Ten meters, ” the latter replied. n Achilles laughed louder than ever. n “You will surely lose, my friend, in that case, ” he told the Tortoise, “but let us race, if you wish it. ”

Zeno’s paradox On the contrary, ” said the Tortoise, “I will win, and I can prove it to you by a simple argument. ”

Zeno’s paradox n “Go on then, ” Achilles replied, with less confidence than he felt before. He knew he was the superior athlete, but he also knew the Tortoise had the sharper wits（智慧), and he had lost many a bewildering(使人困惑的) argument with him before this.

Zeno’s paradox n “Suppose, ” began the Tortoise, “that you give me a 10 -meter head start. n Would you say that you could cover that 10 meters between us very quickly? ” n “Very quickly, ” Achilles affirmed(断言； 肯定）. n “And in that time, how far should I have gone, do you think? ”

Zeno’s paradox n “Perhaps a meter – no more, ” said Achilles after a moment's thought. n “Very well, ” replied the Tortoise, “so now there is a meter between us. And you would catch up that distance very quickly? ” n “Very quickly indeed!”

Zeno’s paradox n “And yet, in that time I shall have gone a little way farther, so that now you must catch that distance up, yes? ” n Ye-es, ” said Achilles slowly. n “And while you are doing so, I shall have gone a little way farther, so that you must then catch up the new distance, ” the Tortoise continued smoothly.

Zeno’s paradox n Achilles said nothing. n “And so you see, in each moment you must be catching up the distance between us, and yet I – at the same time – will be adding a new distance, however small, for you to catch up again. ” n “Indeed, it must be so, ” said Achilles wearily.

Zeno’s paradox n “And so you can never catch up, ” the Tortoise concluded sympathetically. n “You are right, as always, ” said Achilles sadly n – and conceded（让步） the race.

Figures of speech to do with sound n Some figures of speech are chosen because of the sound they make. n Some poets or prose writers often choose a word to echo the meaning

Alliteration（押头韵） n Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds（辅音字母）

Example of alliteration n Also, avoid awkward or affected（做作， 不自然） alliteration.

Assonance（半谐音，押韵） n assonance is the repetition of vowel（ sounds元音）.

Example of assonance

Onomatopoeia（拟声；声喻法） n (pronounced: 'onno-motto-pay-uh') n Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which the sound of a word echoes the thing it describes. n It is a form of symbolism in sound.

Example of onomatopoeia n Hiss（嘘声） n Sizzle（嘶嘶声） n Cuckoo（杜鹃叫） n Buzz（嗡嗡声） n Beep（嘟嘟响） n ding-dong（门铃声；争吵） n Bang（发巨响；重击）

Stan the strong surfer saved several swimmers on Saturday. Tiny Tommy Thomson takes toy trucks to Timmy’s on Tuesday. Click here to read more alliterations.

Princess Kitty will kiss Timmy T. Tippers’s lips The pain may drain Drake, but maybe the weight is fake.

Yeeeeee Ahhhh Swish swish Chug chug!! Glippp Gluppp

句法 英汉句式的共同点主要体现在简单句上。 我爱你. I love you. 在复杂句上，句式在结构和逻辑上的差异 很大。只有注意到这些差异，才能很好的 避免中式英语的出现。

英汉句式差异对比 n n 英语像葡萄vs 汉语像竹子。（不是一个个的葡萄， 而是葡萄串；汉语像一根根的竹子） ·In recent years(状语 ) we have built many highways（主干） that connect those remote villages. （定语从句） 近年来，我们建设了学多高速公路，把偏远的乡 村都连接了起来。 可以看出，英语句子在主干的基础上，添枝加叶。 汉语句子的结构则按照时间逻辑顺序连接。

n 英语句子的形合hypotactic和汉语句子的意合 paratactic. n 英语无论是句子还是语篇，一般都借助语言 形式手段实现词语和句子的连接。如依靠介 词、连词或关系代词等语言手段，连词成句， 连句成篇。如上句。而汉语中则很少使用， 如上例。 n 如：你不来，我就走了。

n 再如马致远的《天净沙·秋思》翻译成英语？ n Tian Jing Sha. Meditation in Autumn 枯藤老树昏鸦 (Withered vines，old trees，stands a sleepy crow) 小桥流水人家 (a small bridge, several cottages, with a stream flow) 古道西风瘦马 (an ancient path, a lean horse, and west wind blow) 夕阳西下 (the setting sun is downward going) 断肠人在天涯 (Afar the heart-broken is roaming) The sun's setting. A heartbroken man's straying far away from his hometown looking at the sapless ratans, old trees, crows in eventide, little bridge, streaming river, houses, ancient path, westerly and thin horses.

简单句的结构 写作训练的初期，掌握好简单句的结构， 也能写出比较连贯通顺的文章来。 n 英语简单句的最基本结构 n 主语＋谓语＋（宾语） n 主语＋系动词＋表语 n 在基本主干的基础上，依据具体的语境 需要，添加状语、定语、补语或插入语 等附加成分。

语言简单句的写作原则 n 在 30分钟的写作时间内，学生通常很难有足够时 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 间去对句子进行精雕细琢，追求句子的复杂性。 所以，写好简单句是获取理想分数的基本保证。 遵循以下五个原则： 始终抓住简单句的基本结构。 以动词（及物动词和不及物动词）为核心。 保证时态的正确性和主谓一致。这是错误频率最 高的语法错误。 熟悉形式主语和形式宾语。It is adj for sb+to do 要想充分表达思想，写出意义更加丰富的句子， 就必须学习复杂句的写作。

复杂句的结构 n 复杂句的结构比较复杂，但是其基本结构 还是由简单句构成的。 n 一般包括主从复合句和并列句。

n 主从复合句：名词性从句、形容词性从句和 状语从句三大类。在简单句的写作基础上， 我们要学会分析句子之间的逻辑关系，用恰 当的连接词将他们连起来组成复合句。 n 比如，there are more and more fake commodities. Some small factories or companies want to earn huge profits by illegal means. 因果关系。

n n n n n 名词性从句 主语从句 宾语从句 表语从句 同位语从句 形容词性从句 定语从句 形容词从句 状语从句：时间、地点、原因、条件、让步、比较、 目的状语从句等等。

n 合成句 n 它和主从复合句的最重要区别在于，并 列句的两个句子可以独立存在，而后者 的从句依赖于主句。

特殊句式的结构 n There be 句型 n It 句型 n 倒装句型 n 强调句式等

II. Characteristics of an Effective Sentence • 一. Correctness should always be the top priority. • 1. Fragment and Ellipse • A fragment is a part of sentence (such as a phrase or dependant/ subordinate clause) which begins with a capital letter and ends as a sentence does. E. g. • [Fragment] The result being that he lost the presidential election. • [Sentence] The result is that he lost the presidential election • More fragments:

G She guided us to the edge of the region. Leaving us to find our own way to the outpost. Revised: Sentence fragments G What I consider to be good writing. Revised: G Where to go, when to start and what other things we should pay special attention to. Revised:

Fragment-like sentences As exclamations oh! Nonsense! Well done! What a day! What a pity! How kind of you! George in Beijing ? Susan a singer? M In dialogue A: how about this? B: very good! M A: your name and your address, please. B: all right , here

Ellipse: § A: where to? § B: this way, please. § A: what then? § B: nothing. MAs transitions And a final instance To return from our digression Now, a few more words about the meeting today.

M For emphasis and vividness There is a price to pay for success. The demanding price of self denial, the price of blood and sweat and tears. a The teachers at the public school didn’t seem to care if I learned anything. They let the kids run wild. But not here. a

2. The differentiation between danglers and general-action designators l Looking up at the sky, the sun went under a cloud. F Looking up at the sky, he saw the sun went under a cloud. l To swim properly, a course of instruction is necessary. F To swim properly, a beginner should take a course of instruction is necessary. F He is quick to see his own mistake when pointed out to him. F He is quick to see his own mistake when it is pointed out to him.

General-action designators don’t relate an action to any particular person, but refer to general action. § § § (1) non-finite verbs Considering everything, his suggestion was reasonable. Judging from that, our project is not bad at all. Talking about ghosts, that really scared me. (2) adjective Curious enough, that accident never bothered him. Needless to say, both sides cherish their friendship. Strange to say, ever since he came he had never been homesick. (3) infinitives To tell the truth to be strict to generalize to do it justice To start with to put the question plainly to make things worse

二、Unity v. A sentence should express a single complete idea, no more, no less. If it contains too much, then the sentence becomes confusing. If it contains too little, then the idea in it is incomplete.

1. Chopped-up sentence 爱咪出版社 公司内部档案·数据目录 The idea of one unified sentence is chopped into several short sentences. E. g. Bad: my best friend in high school was our literature teacher. Her name was Wang Li. She taught us literature for three years. → My best friend in high school was our literature teacher, Wang Li, who taught us for three years. Idea not closely related: born in a small town in South China in 1937, he grew up to be a musician. → He was born in a small town in South China in 1937, (other details) he grew up to be a musician.

2. Fused sentence: several ideas are fused into one sentence. v v Fused: you enter the city you saw the gasoline refineries. Improved: As you enter the city , you saw the gasoline refineries. Fused: they did not win the game so far as I could see they did not even try. Improved: they did not win the game; so far as I could see, they did not even try.

Fused: she suddenly paused and it seemed wonderful that she could speak so easily but she was usually bashful. Improved: she suddenly paused ; it seemed wonderful that she could speak so easily , but she was usually bashful.

A sentence violates the principle of unity if it contains ideas that are not closely related, on the hand, a sentence is not unified if it does not express a complete thought. v Ideas not closely related: Born in a small town in South china in 1937, he grew up to be a great musician. v Idea incomplete: the girl Is too young.

3 wordiness: wordiness also violates the principle of unity, the idea gets blurred by unnecessary words which obscure it like clouds and smoke. n Sorry, I’m not in a position to offer assistance to him. → Sorry, I am unable to help him. n The maid put the letter that came from Prague on my desk. → The maid put the letter from Prague on my desk. n There are several advantages to buying a motorbike. → Buying a motorbike offers several advantages. n I’d like to take the opportunity to say thank you. → Thank you.

3. Clarity requires that a sentence should be written with its meaning unmistakably clear. § misunderstanding is often caused by: (1) The position of modifiers the meaning of a sentence can be change drastically by changes in the position of modifiers. I borrowed my sister’s bike. (only) she decided not to go. she did not decide to go. § Nanjing University has many well known proffers at home and abroad. §

I really don’t mind waiting. I don’t really mind waiting . . . In the dining room, there’s a buzzer for summoning the maid on the floor underneath the table. Squinting modifiers: the modifier is so positioned in a sentence they may refer either to what has gone before or to what comes after. All the people who go to Jamaica sooner or later fall in love with it. In one word, the modifier must be placed as near to the modified as possible.

(2) Reference of person p p p They sent a chair to the repair department that is damaged. It tells here in this chapter about Columbus’s fourth voyage. Peggy held a piece of bread and jam in one hand the telephone in the other. She kept eating it while she talked.

(3) Vague Comparison n n n The things to be compared to must be specified, avoid illogical and ambiguous comparison. E. g. My hometown is closer to Nanjing than Shanghai. Bob is stronger than any men in his team. My English is not better than you. Its price was even higher than gold. The proposal you made is much practicable than he made.

4. Coherence • Coherence requires that the parts of a sentence are so arranged that they stick together, and that the ideas progress in a logical sequence. • (1) Parallelism e. g. • I forgot that my research paper was due on Tuesday and my teacher had said he would not accept late papers.

When food is tasteless, no one likes to eat it; when an article is effectively written, it will echo in your mind a long time to come. • If some food is deliciously cooked, its taste remain with you for days; if an essay is effectively written, its imprint stays with you for long.

In parallel construction it is necessary to balance word for word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence. It is sometimes necessary to repeat the introductory word or phrase or clause. n n n n n (not parallel) The child was pretty and had brains. (parallel) The child was pretty and intelligent. He sat down and was beginning to work. He sat down and began to work. I will wait until you call or she comes. I will wait until you call or until she comes. She is a swimmer and artist. She is a swimmer and an artist. I went to the dance with a girl from Memphis and who has a southern accent. I went to the dance with a girl who is from Memphis and who has a southern accent.

(2) Consistency A. keep the same grammatical subject unless there is good reason for changing. The cast first discusses the play and then nightly rehearsals begin. → The cast first discusses the play and then begin nightly rehearsals. B. Keep the person of pronoun consistent. Shift: Having eaten our lunch, they departed by boat. → Having eaten their lunch, they departed by boat.

C. Keep the number of nouns and pronouns consistent n n Being a student, we all wish to learn to write well. One can never write effectively, unless they write as much and as often as they can.

D. Keep the mood and the voice that you have decided upon. o o First build a fire and then you should make the coffee. He drove the car into the garage and the motor was quickly stopped.

Subordination l l l Correct subordination clarifies the relationships between ideas, thus strengthens the coherence of a sentence. Subordination leads to greater economy in writing, permitting one to express oneself in the fewest possible words. In subordination, the most important thing is to clarify the clause that express the major idea. Make that clause the main one, then subordinate the others.

It can be achieved by turning the other clause into: (1)an adverbial clause introduced by an appropriate conjunction; (2) an adjective clause introduced by a relative pronoun; (3) a present participial phrase; (4) a past participial phrase; (5) an appositive u u I was in college. I had a roommate. He was studying to be a lawyer. I ran out of ink, thus being unable to finish my theme. The dean issued a bulletin, and it said the library would remain open on weekends. The boys were caught in a sudden rainstorm and they took refuge in a haystack.

5. Emphasis: emphasis is the means by which you give desired force to your writing. u u u u (1) positioning for emphasis The sentence end---the place of strongest emphasis The sentence beginning---the place of secondary emphasis The middle --- the place of least emphasis E. g. He will not have the endurance needed for the long training required to be a dentist, I think. Attention: move the point to be emphasized, out of order, to the front, this process is often called fronting or inversion. E. g. This I will never do.

(2). use of the appropriate voice for verbs ¡ In general the active voice is preferable because it is ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ more direct and precise, but sometimes the passive is more appropriate than the active. E. g. The advice which was given to me by you will be followed by me. Passive voice is preferable in the following instances: A: when the doer of the action is unimportant and inconsequential. B: when the agent is vague or unknown. C: when the agent is to be especially emphasized.

(3) Climatic order it is the order that goes from the least important to the most important or that goes from the general to the specific. • Unemphatic: she was kind-hearted, good –looking, and well-mannered. • Note: • The opposite of climatic order results in anticlimax. it is often used deliberately for humorous effects. • E. g. at one fell swoop, he lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog.

英语 | | | 写作 | | 教程 | (4) rhetorical question A rhetorical question differs from an ordinary question in that it does not need an answer, it is used for emphasis. The rhetorical question is often reserved for special occasion to exert its great force. A positive rhetorical question is like a strong negative statement, while a negative rhetorical question is like a strong positive statement. E. g. Is that the reason for despair? If winter comes, can spring be far behind?

(5) The balanced sentence, by positioning together two or more parallel items, makes for poignancy and emphasis. v E. g. v Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. ----Francis Bacon: “Of Studies” v

III. The kinds of sentences o o o o o 1. Grammatically In structure: (1) a simple sentence (2) a compound sentence (3) a complex sentence (4) a compound-complex sentence In function: (1) declarative (2) interrogative (3) imperative (4) exclamatory

Rhetorically Loose Sentence Periodic sentence The balance sentence The cumulative sentence The anticlimactic sentence Rhetorical question

2. The usage of each sentence patterns § (1) the simple sentence § The simple sentence consists of one independent clause with no dependent clause. e. g. § The storm is over. § Note: the simple sentence does not mean to express a single idea, in fact it can carry a lot of information at the level of phrase. e. g. § They did not know any of the people they passed on their way to and from their room. § Rhetorically, the simple sentence can be made complex in form and in content. §

The complexity of simple sentence involves the modification A. Pre-modification The tall, thin, sickly-looking man (adj. ) The college administration building (n. ) A day-by-day arrangement (adverb phrase) A do-it-yourself book (sentence)

C. Apposition § § § § (a) Equivalence 1 the general manager, Tom Jones (appellation) 2 a general manager, Tom Jones (identification) 3 Tom Jones, the general manager (designation) 4 the PLA or the People’s Liberation Army (rewording) (b) attribution The captain, an old man The young woman, the victim of the gang assault

(C) Inclusion § 1. large cities, such as (like) Shanghai, New York and Hong Kong § 2. famous novelists, for example Dickens and Hardy § 3. Chinese food, particularly Sichuan cuisine. § 4. Children, especially very young children (particularization) § (D) appositive clause

(2) Compound Sentence ( A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses with no dependent clause. E. g. the storm is over, but the ground is still wet. ( The independent clauses in A compound sentence are of equal status i. e. they are paratactic in relationship. It is also called multiple sentence. ( The evening came, and the work went on. (sequential) ( The evening came, but the work went on. (contrastive) ( You could work on, or you could go home. (alternative)

(3) Complex Sentence o p A complex sentence consists of one independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. E. g. Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet. A complex sentence makes clear the logical relationship between events or ideas through subordination.

(4) Compound –Complex Sentence o o Compound –Complex Sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. E. g. Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet; we cannot go for walk.

Loose sentence A loose sentence is the one that may be brought to a grammatical close before the end is reached. It puts the main idea before all supplementary information. e. g. she was interested in music, but she finally came to this institute to study English.

Periodic Sentence A periodic sentence is the one that is grammatically close before the end is reached. It puts the main idea after all supplementary information. e. g. Though she was interested in music, she finally came to this institute to study English.