Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists D A

Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists D. A. Vaccari, P. F. Strom, and J. E. Alleman © John Wiley & Sons, 2005 Chapter 14 - Ecology

C 3 – 2 P– 1 C 2 – 120, 000 P – 90, 000 (A) C 1 – 150, 000 P – 200, 000 P – 1, 500, 000 Grassland (summer) P – 200 Temperate forest (summer) C 2 - 4 C 1 - 21 C 1 - 11 (B) P-4 P – 96 Wisconsin lake English Channel Figure 14 -1. Examples of several types of trophic pyramids. (A) Pyramid of numbers of individuals per 0. 1 hectare, not including microorganisms and soil animals. (B) Pyramid of biomass – grams dry weight per square meter. [Based on Odum]

C 3 – 1. 5 (C) C 3 - 21 C 2 - 11 C 1 - 37 S-5 C 2 - 383 P – 20, 810 P – 809 Standing crop C 2 - 6 C 1 - 12 (D) C 1 - 3368 S - 5060 Energy flow C 2 - 3 C 1 - 10 P – 100 P– 2 Spring Winter Figure 14 -1. Examples of several types of trophic pyramids. (C) Standing crop (in kcal/m 2) versus energy flow (in kcal/m 2/yr) pyramids for Silver Springs, Florida. (D) Seasonal change in biomass pyramid in the water column (net plankton only) of an Italian lake (mg/m 3). [Based on Odum Fig 3 -18, pg 152].

Figure 14 -2. Next two slides: Food webs for an (a) unpolluted and (b) a polluted marsh/estuary. [from “Water Quality in a Recovering Ecosystem”, C. P. Mattson and N. C. Vallario, Hackensack Meadowlands Development Commission, 1975. ].

Plovers Sandpipers Willet Periwinkles Terrapin Clapper rail Blowfish Sea Robin Oyster Mosquito (a) Mussels Clams Fiddler Crab Oystercatcher Snails Herring Gull Glossy Ibis Dowitchers Mud Algae Blue Crabs Marsh Plants Killifish Stickleback Silversides Sheepshead Minnow Geese Detritus EXPORT Ducks Winter Flounder Man Gulls Terns Bluefish Striped Bass Muskrat Raccoon Ribbed Mussel Weakfish Amphipods Shrimp Mice Voles Grasshoppers & Leaf hoppers Summer Flounder Spotted Sea Trout Shark

Clapper rail Mosquito (b) Fiddler Crab Herring Gull Glossy Ibis Dowitchers Mud Algae Marsh Plants Killifish Stickleback Silversides Sheepshead Minnow Geese Detritus Ducks Man Gulls Terns Muskrat Raccoon Weakfish Mice Voles Shark Grasshoppers & Leaf hoppers EXPORT

Figure 14 -3. Generalized global biogeochemical cycle. (Based on Krebs) Atmosphere Volatilization and evaporation Death Dead organic matter Volatilization and evaporation Terrestrial food web Uptake Decomposition Precipitation, deposition, absorption Dissolved minerals Weathering Runoff Marine food web Dead organic matter Sinking Lithosphere Geological processes

Figure 14 -4. The sedimentary cycle. The three sedimentary pathways: a) mantle; b) subduction zone volcanic activity; c) crustal motion [Based on Odum] Manmade fallout Natural fallout Sediment and sedimentary rock Weathering and Erosion Subduction zone Granitic Continent Basalt Mantle

Figure 14 -5. The global carbon cycle. Units: 1015 g C or 1015 g C/yr. (Based on Krebs) Atmosphere 720 5 Photosynthesis and respiration 120 Land plants 500 -800 Deforestation, land use change and burning 0 -2 Soil and detritus 1500 Rivers 0. 5 - 2 40 50 Marine Biota 3 6 Fossil fuel 6000 Carbonate rocks 10, 000 Exchange 90 Absorption 2 DOC <700 Ocean surface 1020 4 91. 6 100 Intermediate and deep water 35, 000 Sediments 150 0. 2

The Biosphere II experiment in Oracle, Arizona. Photo by Ed Flora.

Figure 14 -6. The hydrologic cycle. UNITS 1018 g or 1018 g/yr [Based on Odum] Atmosphere 13 Vapor transport to land 37. 4 Evaporation transpiration 72. 9 Ice 29, 000 Lakes and Rivers 130 Groundwater 9, 500 Precipitation on land 110. 3 Precipitation on the sea 385. 7 Evaporation from the sea 423. 1 Runoff 37. 4 Ocean 1, 370, 000

Figure 14 -7. Fluxes in the global nitrogen cycle. Estimated fluxes in Tg/yr. Ammonia, organic nitrogen and other forms also enter the atmosphere and oxidize or fall with rain. Dotted line arrows represent primarily anthropogenic fluxes. [Based on Odum and on Raven] Lightning 4 N 2 Industrial fixation 40 Atmosphere Forest fires 12 Fossil fuel Combustion 21 Denitrification Land 107 -161 Sea 40 -120 Biofixation Land 139 Sea 10 -90 NOx - NO 3 from air to: Land Sea Total Acid rain 17 9 26 Dry deposition 15 4 19 Land water - NO 3 Nitrification NH 3 Assimilation 1000 Volcanism 5 Mineralization (Ammonification) Organic N

Figure 14 -8. Another view of the global nitrogen cycle, showing storage reservoirs of nitrogen. Values are kg/m 2. (Based on Whittaker, 1975. ) N 2 Atmosphere 7550 NO 3 Soil/Ocean 0. 84 NH 4+ Igneous Rocks 860 NH 3 Atmosphere 0. 000024 Organic N Animals 0. 00215 Organic N Plants 0. 067 Organic N Soil/Ocean 1. 2 N 2 O Atmosphere 0. 0030 NO 2 Soil/Ocean 0. 027 NO 3 Sediments 0. 005 NH 3 Soil/Ocean 0. 056 N 2 Ocean 42 Organic N Sediments 8800 N 2 O Ocean 0. 00062

Biochemical sulfur transformations. Sulfur Oxidation States -2 -1 +1 0 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 Anoxic sulfate reducing bacteria Sulfide generating bacteria Anoxic sulfite reducing bacteria Anoxic thiosulfate reducing bacteria H 2 S S 0 = S 2 O 3 Hydrogen Sulfide Sulfur Thiosulfate Sulfide oxidizers = SO 3 = SO 4 Sulfite Sulfate Elemental sulfur oxidizers

Figure 14 -9. The global sulfur cycle. Units: 1012 g S/yr. [Based on Krebs] Dust 20 Wet and dry deposition 84 Aerial transport to sea 81 Industrial 93 Volcanism 10 Aerial transport to land 20 Biogenic gases 22 Deposition 258 Sea salt 144 Biogenic Volcanism gases 10 43 Rivers 213 Mining 149 Weathering and erosion 72 Pyrite 39 Hydrothermal sulfides 96

Figure 14 -10. Example phosphorus cycle from a Georgia salt marsh. Reservoirs are in mg P/m 2, fluxes are in mg P/d/m 3. Uptake by Spartina and release from detritus vary seasonally as shown. [Based on Odum] 6 Water 30 16. 4 (avg) Filter feeders 175 6 Detritus 10, 000 9. 8 16. 4 (avg) Sediments 500, 000 Spartina 660

Figure 14 -11. Simplified nitrogen cycle in the Bay of Quinte, Ontario (Based on Ricklefs) X 2 Particulate N J 1 = k 1 X 1 Nitrate J 2 = k 2 X 3 DON J 4 = k 4 X 4 J 5 = k 5 X 4 Ammonia J 3 = k 3 X 3

Figure 14 -12. Temperature-moisture climograph. (a) The successful introduction of the Hungarian Partridge to Montana, the unsuccessful introduction to Missouri, compared to average conditions in its native breeding range in Europe. (b) Conditions in Tel Aviv, Israel showing conditions favoring an outbreak of the Mediterranean fruit fly in 1927. [Redrawn from Odum, 1983; original from Twomey, 1936. ]

Figure 14 -13. Population histogram for three different growth scenarios. Source: U. S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, September 2004 version.

Figure 14 -14. Predicted total population changes

Figure 14 -15. The logistic equation solution [14 -26] with several parameter values, and compared to exponential growth equation [14 -18]. The dashed line is N = 100. a. Logistic equation with r 0 = 1. 0, K = 100, N(0) = 5. 0; b. Logistic equation with r 0 = 0. 75, K = 100, N(0) = 5. 0; c. Logistic equation with r 0 = 1. 0, K = 70, N(0) = 5. 0; d. Logistic equation with r 0 = 1. 0, K = 100, N(0) = 150. ; e. Exponential equation with r 0 = 0. 7, N(0) = 5. 0

Figure 14 -16. U. S. population data with logistic equation fit by Pearl and Reed, and updated logistic equation fitted to years 1950 -1990.

Figure 14 -17. Oscillations in predator-prey populations. Example is a predatory wasp [Heterospilus prosopidis] and its host the weevil [Callosobruchus chinensis]. Data from Utida, 1957.

Figure 14 -18. Simulation results of the Lotka-Volterra equations. (a) Time domain plot with H(0) = 100 and P(0) = 10. (b) Phase-plane plot (P vs. H) for various initial conditions, and the equilibrium point. (a) (b)

Figure 14 -19. Population distributions along a hypothetical environmental gradient. (a) Closed communities; (b) Open communities. Abundance Closed communities Ecotone Environmental gradient [Based on Ricklefs] Abundance Open communities Environmental gradient Ecotone