ENGLISH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR NOUNS present-day English 3

ENGLISH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR

NOUNS present-day English: 3 (natural) genders: masculine, feminine, neuter (inanimate) 2 numbers: singular, plural 2 cases: common case, possessive case most nouns 2 (spoken) or 4 (written) forms: [boɪ] boys [boɪz] boy’s boys’

All creatures, heavens and angels, the sun and the moon, the stars and the earth, animals and birds, the sea and all fish, God created and made in six days. Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan, steorran and eorþan, ny tenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas, God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum.

OE NOUNS 3 (grammatical) genders: masculine, feminine, neuter 2 numbers: singular, plural 4 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative 8 different forms (stem + case/number ending)

Different inflectional patterns > different DECLENSIONS 6 major, several minor declensions: 4 vocalic (strong) declensions – stem ends in a vowel (a, ō, u, i) 1 consonantal (weak) declension – stem ends in a consonant (n) 1 root declension – stem equals the root

a-declension: n-declension root declension stānes stāne stānas stāna stānum stānas naman naman namena namum naman mannes menn mann wordes worde worda wordum word sunne sunnan sunnena sunnum sunnan menn manna mannum menn

THE FINAL FRICATIVE VOICING wolf-wolves, thief-thieves, bath-baths, mouth-mouths, house-houses, loaf-loaves, half-halves, life-lives BUT: dwarfs/dwarves, hoofs/hooves, scarfs/scarves… AND: beliefs, chiefs, roofs… OE N/A sg. wulf, OE N/A pl. wulfas OE wulfas > ME wulves > NE [wʊlvz] wolves

THE ZERO PLURAL neuter nouns in the a-declension, monosyllabic, long syllable OE N/A sg. word, N/A pl. word OE N/A sg. hūs, N/A pl. hūs but: OE sg. scip, pl. scipu ny ten, pl. ny tenu

ME. word + es hūs + es …. . But: sheep < OE scēap deer < OE dēor…. so also: fish, trout, quail…

THE MUTATION PLURAL mouse-mice, louse-lice, man-men, tooth-teeth, goose-geese, woman-women PALATAL MUTATION/ i-MUTATION Germ. *mūs-, pl. *mūs-iz. OE N/A sg. mūs, N/A pl. my s ME mūs, pl. mīs NE [maʊs] mouse, [maɪs] mice

A sound law operating in North Germanic and West Germanic dialects: pre-OE*a > OE æ, e/_ [+nasal] pre-OE *o > OE e pre-OE *u > OE y pre-OE *eo, *ea > OE ie under the influence of *i in the next syllable The same rules apply to long accented vowels and diphthongs

OE sg. wīf-mann, pl. wīf-menn ME sg. wimman, pl. wimmen sg. wumman, pl. wummen NE sg. [‘wʊmən] woman, pl. [‘wɪmɪn] women

THE n-PLURAL ox-oxen, child-children, brother-brethren… OE n-declension (masculine) oxan oxena oxan oxum oxan OE oxan > ME oxen > NE [ɒksn] oxen

OE cild, N/A pl. cildru OE cildru > ME childre, childer + en > NE [ʧɪldrən] children OE brōþor, pl. brōþor ME brōther, pl. brōther, brōther+es, brēther+en NE [brʌðəz], [breðrən] brothers, brethren

FOREIGN PLURAL MARKERS alumnus – alumni bacillus – bacilli datum – data stratum – strata genus – genera analysis – analyses criterion – criteria phenomenon – phenomena…

Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan, steorran and eorþan, ny tenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas, God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum. DO S P A [ealla gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan, eorþan and steorran, ny tenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas, ] [God] [gescēop and geworhte] [on six dagum].

ealle > ME all(e) > NE all gesceafta – A. pl. fem. , N. sg. gesceaft heofonas – A. pl. masc. , N. sg. heofon englas – A. pl. masc. , N. sg. engel sunnan – A. sg. fem. , N. sg. sunne mōnan – A. sg. masc. , N. sg. mōna eorþan – A. sg. fem. , N. sg. eorþe steorran – A. pl. masc. N. sg. steorra ny tenu - A. pl. neut. N. sg. ny ten fugelas – A. pl. masc. , N. sg. fugel sǣ - A. sg. neut. fiscas – A. pl. masc. , N. sg. fisc

God – N. sg. masc. gescēop – 3 rd p. sg. preterite, indicative; infinitive: (ge)sceapan geworhte – 3 rd p. sg. preterite, indicative; infinitive: wyrcan dagum – D. pl. masc. , N. sg. dæg

THE CASE OE four cases – nominative, genitive, dative, accusative a-declension: n-declension mutation plurals stānes stāne stān naman mannes menn mann stānas stāna stānum stānas naman namena namum naman menn manna mannum menn

The only surviving ending : -es (Genitive singular, a-declension OE –es > ME – [əz] > NE [z] Mary’s > NE [s] Mat’s > NE [ız] Bruce’s From late OE – spreading to all masculine, all neuter, all feminine and plural nouns Apostrophe: since 1650 in singular, since 1780 in plural In ME case endings replaced with prepostional endings OE …. hit liīode Herode and eallum þe him mid ston… ME … and (it) pleside to Eroude and also to men restynge… NE … and pleased Herod and them that sat with him

THE FUNCTION OF SAXON GENITIVE OE Hwæs bidde ic? …. Iohannes heofod þæs fulluhteres… verbs and adjectives governed different cases we synt Abrahames cynnes partitive meaning Herodiascan dohtor possessive meaning In NE – mostly restricted to possessive function and human beings

PERSONAL PRONOUNS NE: I me you we us you he him she her it it they them -unlike nouns, case distinction -2 nd person singular = 2 nd person plural -common case = objective case -gender distinction in 3 rd person singular only -Scandinavian pronouns in 3 rd person plural

OE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 1 st 2 nd 3 rd singular: ic mīn mē mē þū þīn þē þē hē his him hine hēo hiere hēo ʒē ēower ēow hīe hiera hem, heom, him hīe plural: wē ūre ūs ūs hit his him hit

1 st singular, 3 rd singular masculine, 1 st plural: NE common case < OE nominative case NE objective case < OE dative ic mīn mē mē OE ic > ME i(c, ī > NE [aı] I OE mē > ME mē > NE [mi: ] me þū þīn þē þē hē his him hine wē ūre ūs ūs ʒē ēower ēow hīe hiera hem, heom, him hīe OE hē > ME hē > NE [hi: ] he OE him > ME him > NE [hım] him OE wē > ME wē > NE [wi: ] we OE ūs > ME ūs, us > NE [Λs] us hēo hiere hēo hit his him hit

3 rd person singular neuter: OE common case = OE accusative case = NE common, objective case OE hit > ME hit > NE [ɪt] it 3 rd person singular feminine: OE nominative lost NE common case < ? OE dative case > NE objective case OE hēo > ME hē, hjō ME sjē, shē > NE [∫i: ] she OE hiere > ME her(e > NE [hз: ] her ic mīn mē mē þū þīn þē þē hē his him hine hēo hiere hēo wē ūre ūs ūs ʒē ēower ēow hīe hiera hem, heom, him hīe hit his him hit

2 nd person singular, plural þū þīn þē þē ʒē ēower ēow OE nominative singular > NE common case singular (obsolete) OE dative singuar > NE objective case singular (obsolete) OE þū > ME thou > NE [ðau] thou OE þē > ME thee > NE [ði: ] thee OE nominative plural > NE common case plural (obsolete) OE dative plural > NE common/objective case singular/plural OE ʒē > ME yē > NE [ji: ] ye OE ēow > ME you > NE [ju: ] you plural → singular (13 th - 18 th century) objective case → common case (14 th – 17 th century)

3 rd person plural OE nominative case > lost OE objective case > lost? OE hīe > ME hē ; thei (12 th c. ) > NE [ðeɪ] they OE hem, heom > ME hem, NE [əm] ‘em, them (14 th c. ) > [ðem] them And specially from every shires ende of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende the holy blisful martyr for to seke that hem hath holpen whan that they were seke…

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS OE genitives of personal pronouns also used as possessives. Possessives were declined, they displayed gender and number agreement … ūrne gedæghwāmlican hlāf syle ūs tðdæg and forgyf ūs ūre gyltas swā wē forgyfað ūrum gyltendum…

1 st 2 nd 3 rd singular ic mīn mē mē þū þīn þē þē hē his him hine hēo hiere hēo ʒē ēower ēow hit his him hit hīe hiera hem, heom, him hīe plural: wē ūre ūs ūs NE my, mine your, yours his her, hers its our, ours your, yours their, theirs

1 st person singular: OE mīn > ME ‘mīn > NE [‘maın] mine (disjunctive) ME ˚mi, mī > NE [mɪ], [maɪ] my (conjunctive) 2 nd person singular (obsolete) OE þīn > ME ‘thīn > NE [‘ðaɪn] thine (disjunctive) ME thi(n, thī > NE [ðaɪ] thy (conjunctive)

2 nd person plural OE N. sg. masc. ēower > ME your > NE [jɔə], [jɔ: ] your 3 rd person plural OE N. sg. masc. hiera > ME her(e ME their > NE [ðɛə] their

CONJUCTIVE (ATTRIBUTIVE) AND DISJUNCTIVE (PREDICATIVE) POSSESSIVES mine, thine – accent related hers, ours, yours, theirs

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS In OE regular personal pronouns were used in reflexive position Bycgaþ eow ele …. Hē hine restan wolde… Occasionally, reinforced with the adjective self: Romane selfe sædon …… Ic swerige ðurh me selfne

The “old system” of reflexive pronouns: me self thee self him self her self it self us self you self them self adjective > self noun ⇒ personal pronouns > possessive pronouns

The “new system” of reflexive pronouns: my self thy self his self her self it(s) self our self your self their self pluralized, combination of the old system (3 rd person) and of the new system (1 st and 2 nd persons): myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves

Modern English usage: cf. : She dressed and left for work. The little girl dressed herself and came down the stairs.

DEMONSTRATIVES Old English demonstratives: ‘this’ N. sg. masc. þes N. sg. fem. þēos N. sg. neut. þis N. pl. þās ‘that’ N. sg. masc. se, sē N. sg. fem. sēo N. sg. neut. þæt N. pl. þā

ARTICLES THE DEFINITE ARTICLE In OE – unaccented ‘that’ demonstratives occasionally used as the definite article masc. sg. fem. sg. neut. sg. pl. N. se G. þes D. þǣm A. þone L. þē I. þy sēo þǣre þā þæt þes þǣm þæt þā þāra þǣm þā ME the > NE [ðǝ] the ME ‘the > thē > NE [‘ði: ] the ME [+vowel, -long] ￫ [+long] / - V ⇒ thē apple > NE [ði: ] apple

the + comparative/superlative of adverbs: The sooner the better. He runs (the) fastest. . forþām wæs sanctus Paulus þy strangra on gōdum weorcum…. . þæt hēr þy māra wīsdom on lande wǣre…þy wē mā geþēoda cūþon…. = ‘even more’ OE þy , þē > ME the > NE the [ðə]

The indefinite article OE: þæt dyde unhold mann… ‘an enemy did that’ he bestēalcode on land swā wulf…’he stole into the land like a wolf’ occasionally: . . ān mann wæs eardiende on Israhēla þēode… ‘a man lived in Israel’. . . nim sume tigelan… ‘take a tablet’ OE ān > ME ǭn, wō n > NE wūn, wun > [‘wʌn] one OE °ān > ME an, a(n) > NE [ən], [ə] ME ‘an > NE [‘æn], [‘eɪ] a, an = RESTRESSED FORMS

ADJECTIVES Old English adjectives displayed number, gender and case agreement with the nouns which they modified. strong and weak declension …ān gōd mann wæs eardiende…. Se gōda mann wæs hālig… The choice of the declension depended on the specific or non-specific reference of the modified noun STRONG ENDINGS = NON-SPECIFIC (INDEFINITE) REFERENCE WEAK ENDINGS = SPECIFIC (DEFINITE) REFERENCE

Strong declension: singular masc. fem. neut. plural all cwices cwicum cwicne cwicu cwicre cwice (cwicre) cwices cwicum cwice cwicra cwicum cwice cwican cwican cwicra cwicum cwican Weak declension cwican

MIDDLE ENGLISH: The ending –e was the only ending retained: strong singular: (an) good man strong plural: (many) goode men weak singular: (the) goode man weak plural: the goode men The final –e ceased to be pronounced in the 14 th century. Chaucer (Canterbury Tales): Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote the drought of March hath perced to the roote… Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth inspired hath in every holt and heeth the tendre croppes… … and smale foules maken melodye that sleepen al the nyght with open ie….

In Modern English adjectives are invariable, except in the system of comparison. COMPARISON: inflectional, periphrastic, irregular Inlectional comparison comparative degree: OE –ra (masc. ), -re (fem. ), -re (neut. ), -ran (pl. ) weak declension (endings) ME –r[ə] > NE [ə] –er OE heardra (N. sg. masc. ) > ME hardr(e, harder > NE harder [‘hɑ: də]

superlative degree: strong or weak declension OE –ost, -est > ME –[ə]st > NE [ɪst] -est OE heardost > ME hardest > NE [‘hɑ: dɪst] hardest

PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON “competes” with inflectional comparison since ME: comparative/superlative of ‘much’ + positive degree The origin of more, most: OE micel ‘great’; comp. māra, sup. mǣst OE micle ‘greatly’, comp. mā, sup. mǣst OE mā > ME mǭ, mǭre > NE [mɔ: ] more OE mǣst > ME mę st; mǭst > NE [‘məʊst] most

Shakespeare: …. to some more fitter place… … I am more better than Prospero… …. in the calmest and most stillest of the night… … most unkindest cut of all… present-day English: inflectional comparison: all monosyllabic, disyllabic adjectives in -er, -le, -ow, -y periphrastic comparison: disyllabic adjectives in –ed, -ish, -ful, -ing, -ive, -st, all adjectives longer than two syllables

IRREGULAR COMPARISON 1. good – better – the best gōd bet(e)ra be(t)st yfel wiersa wierst micel māra mǣst ly tel lǣssa lǣst

b) old – older/elder - the oldest/eldest OE eald , ald (Anglian) > ME ǭld > NE [əʊld] old OE ieldra, eldra ME eldr(e > > NE [eldə] elder > OE ieldest, eldest > ME eldest NE [əʊldə] older (17 th c. ) > NE [eldɪst] eldest > NE [əʊldɪst] oldest (17 th c. ) OE læt, lat. OE lætra > ME lāt NE [leɪt] late > ME latr(e > NE [lætə] latter ME lātr(e OE * lætst > > ME last > NE [leɪtə] later > NE [lɑ: st] last ME lātest > NE [leɪtɪst] latest

OE nēah > ME neigh > NE [naɪ] nigh OE nēarra > ME nę rre > NE [nɪə] near OE nēahst > ME nehst > NE [nekst] next OE forþ (adverb) OE furþra > ME furthr(e ME furthest > NE [fɜ: ðə] further > NE [fɜ: ðɪst] furthest OE feorr (adverb) OE fierra > OE fierrest > ME ferre, farre > NE [fɑ: ðə] farther Me ferrest, farrest > NE [fɑ: ðɪst] farthest

ADVERBS according to form: SIMPLE, DERIVED, PERIPHRASTIC SIMPLE: now, then, here, there, well, hard, fast…. . origin: a) OE simple adverbs: nū, hēr, þǣr, wel…. b) OE derived adverbs: hearde, fæste, wīde… OE hearde > ME harde > NE [hɑ: d] hard

DERIVED ADVERBS: widely, strongly, hardly, eastward(s), clockwise… origin: a) OE adjective + suffix –līce OE noun sōþ + līc (adjectival suffix) + e (adverbial suffix) > sōþ-līce OE –līce > ME li(ch(e > NE -[lɪ] –ly ME –lich(e, -ly competes with –(e) Shakespeare: thou didst it excellent she will speak most bitterly and strange since 18 th c. simple adverbs - exceptions

double adverbial forms: Peter works hard. Peter hardly (ever) works. I hate arriving late. I haven’t been to theatre lately He can jump very high. He is highly spoken of. Come close. They are closely related. Take it easy. This can be arranged easily.

b) OE nouns/adverb + weard OE weard ‘in direction of’ > ME ward > NE -ward(s) c) OE nound + wīs –e ‘in the manner OE –wīse > ME – wīs(e > NE –[waɪz] PERIPHRASTIC ADVERBIALS: in a (adjective) manner/ way cf overboard, uphill, downside, upstream….

NUMERALS words representing numbers cardinal – quantity: one, two, three ordinal – sequential order: first, second, third ranking – order of relevance: primary, secondary, tertiary partitititve – division into fraction: whole, half, third composite – composition: unary, binary, ternary multiplicative – repetition: once, twice, thrice reproductive – replication: single, double, triple collective – sets: pair, triad, dozen distributive – alternating patterns: every other, every third…(singuli, bini, terni…) …

OE cardinal OE ordinal 1 ān 2 twā, twegen 3 þrēo, þrīe 4 fēower 5 fīf 6 siex 7 seofon 8 eahta 9 nigon 10 tīen forma ōþer þirda, þridda fēorþa fīfta siexta seofoþa eahtoþa nigoþa tēoþa 22 twegen and twentig

1 – 3 : declined, gender distinction 4 - 19 : not declined, but the ending –e when used alone fīf menn - fīfe Ordinal numerals: cardinal + oþa IE * -to- > Germ. * -þa- > OE – (o) þa > ME –th(e > NE – [ θ] after voiceless fricatives – dissimilation of [θ] to [t] : fīfta Ealla gesceafta […. . ] God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum. And an þǣm seofoþan dæʒe hē ʒeendode his weorc and geswāc þā and hīe wǣron swīþe gōde. (Ælfric) Henry the Fift, Twelft Night (Shakespeare)

Irregular ordinal numerals one : (the) first OE ān > ME ǭn, wōn > NE wūn, wun, [wʌn] one OE forma, foremest, ǣrest, fyrsta OE fyrsta > ME first(e > NE [fɜ: st] first two : (the) second OE twā (fem. , neut. ) > ME twǭ > twō > NE [tu: ] two OE twegen (masc. ) > ME tweien > NE [tweɪn] twain

OE ōþer > ME ō ther > NE ūther, uther > [ʌðə] other ME secounde > NE [‘sekənd] second three : (the )third OE þrēo (fem. , neut. ) > ME thrē > NE [θri: ] three OE þrīe > ME thrē > NE [θri: ] three OE þridda, þirda > ME third(e > NE [θɜ: d] third five : (the ) fifth OE fīfe > ME fīv(e > NE [faɪv] five OE fīfta > ME fift(e > NE fift, fifth [fɪf θ]

VERBS verbal categories: person, tense, mood, (voice? ) PERSON - Who is the doer of the action? I, you or somebody else AGENT > SUBJECT > NOUN PHRASE and/or personal ending

OE present tense (indicative) singular plural wrīt-est wrīt-eþ wrīt-aþ 1 st person – loss of the ending –e in ME OE (ic) wrīte > ME wrīt(e > NE [raɪt] write 2 nd person – loss of the 2 nd person singular loss of singular reference in the 2 nd person

3 rd person singular: OE –(e)þ, -t (in contracted forms) remains in ME, but gradually replaced with –es from the north OE (hē) wrīteþ, wrītt > ME wrīteth, writt, wrītes OE –es > ME [ə]s, [ə][z] > NE [z] [s] [ɪz] ME (hē ) wrītes > NE [‘raɪts] writes

plural: OE –aþ preserved as ME –eth, but soon replaced with –en OE (hīe) wrītaþ > ME wrīteth, wrīt(e(n > NE [‘raɪt] write The ending –es the only personal ending preserved, but even this one restricted to the present tense and to the indicative mood. Why not in the past tense? Why not in the subjunctive and the imperative? Why not in modal verbs?

PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE OE present subjunctive singular : wrīte OE present subjuctive plural: wrīten OE preterite subjunctive singular: write OE preterite subjunctive plural: writen PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE IMPERATIVE OE imperative singular: OE imperative plural: Wrīt! Lufe! Wrītaþ! Lufaþ!

PERSONAL ENDINGS IN MODAL VERBS OE cunnan ‘know’ present: 1. cann 2. canst 3. cann plural: cunnon OE sculan ‘be obliged’ present: 1. sceal 2. scealt 3. sceal plural: sculon

TENSE relation between the time when the reported action occurred and the moment of speaking NOW

TENSE = MANDATORY FORMAL ENCODING OF TEMPORAL RELATIONS OLD ENGLISH: two formal tenses: preterite and present (non-preterite) NON-PRETERITE NOW

OLD ENGLISH: two formal tenses: preterite and present PRESENT TENSE: BASE FORM (+ PERSONAL ENDINGS) PRETERITE TENSE: the marking depended on the type of the verb 4 types of verbs: 1. 2. 3. 4. STRONG VERBS WEAK VERBS PRETERITE-PRESENT VERBS ANOMALOUS VERBS

STRONG VERBS Indo-European vowel gradation (Ablaut) = alteration of vowels in the stems of related words or different grammatical forms of the same word IE: 2 gradation lines: e-gradation, a-gradation e-gradation – potential grades: *e ~ * ē ~ * ／ ~ * o ~ * ō e-grade: present stem o-grade, ē-grade, ō-grade, zero-grade: perfect stem

present stem (e-grade) : present tense indicative, present tense subjuctive imperative, infinitive, present participle perfect stem (o-grade) : 1 st and 3 rd p. sg. preterite indicative perfect stem (ē/ō/zero-grade) : 2 nd p. sg. , plural preterite indicative, preterite subjunctive perfect stem (zero-grade) past participle

OE wrīt-an present indicative preterite indicative 1 wrīt-e 2 wrīt-est 3 wrīt-eþ wrāt writ-e wrāt pl. wrīt-aþ writ-on pres. part. wrīt-ende past part. ge-writ-en representative forms: infinitive, 1 st/3 rd sg preterite, plural preterite, past participle wrītan, wrāt, writon, gewriten

OE wrītan < Germanic * u rīt- < IE * u rei t. IE *ei > Germ. * ī > OE ī > ME ī > NE [aɪ] OE wrāt < Germanic * u rai t- < IE * u roi t. IE *o > Germ. * a; Germ. * ai > OE ā > ME ǭ > NE [əʊ] OE ge-writen < Germanic * - u rit- < IE * u rit. IE * / + *i = *i > OE i > ME i > NE [ɪ]

OE drincan < Germanic * drink- < IE * drenk. IE *e > Germ. * i /_ [+nasal] OE dranc < Germanic * drank - < IE * dronk. IE *o > Germ. *a > OE a, o > ME a > NE [æ] OE gedruncen < Germanic * -drunk- < IE *-drn k. IE * / + sonorant > Germ * un/um/ul/ur > OE u > ME u > NE [ʌ]

SEVEN CLASSES OF STRONG VERBS class Infinitive 1/3 pret. sg Plural preterite Past participle I wrītan wrāt writon -writen write II cēosan cēas curon -curen choose III drincan dranc druncon -druncen drink IV beran bær bǣron -boren bear V sprecan spræc sprǣcon -sprecen speak VI scacan scōcon -scacen shake VII feallan fēollon -feallen fall

WEAK VERBS new Germanic formation: only one stem (present stem) tense encoded with the dental sufifix

3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS: Class 1: infinitive ending –an, preterite ending –(e)de, pp -(e)d Class 2: infinitive ending -ian, preterite ending –ode, pp ending –od Class 3: habban, libban, secgan, hycgan

3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS: Class 1: infinitive ending –an, preterite ending –(e)de, pp ending -(e)d Class 2: infinitive ending -ian, preterite ending –ode, pp ending –od Class 3: habban, libban, secgan, hycgan class 1 inf. pret. pp. class 2 hieran hier-de ge-hier(e)d class 3 lufian luf-ode ge-lufod habban hæfde ge-hæfd OE -ede, -ode > ME [ə]d[ə] > NE [d], [t], [ɪd] played, worked, embedded

PRETERITE PRESENT VERBS one stem (perfect stem) preterite tense – dental suffix STRONG PRESENT STEM PERFECT STEM DENTAL SUFFIX WEAK PRETERITE PRESENT

PRETERITE- PRESENT VERBS present preterite mægst mæg mightest mighte magon mighton

ANOMALOUS VERBS bēon/wesan, dōn, gān, willan bēon/ wesan, eom eart is sindon bēo bist biþ bēoþ wæs, wǣron, bēon dōn: dō, dōþ, dydon… gān: pret. ēode willan: pret. wolde….

FROM OE TO NE: a) the levelling of the singular and the plural form of strong verbs in northern dialects since the 14 th century: 2 nd form (1 st, 3 rd sg) OE wrītan ME wrīten wrāt wrǭt 3 rd form (plural) writon gewriten (y)writen

b) in NE the preterite form (occasionally) extended to past participle: OE standan stōd NE stand stōdon stood gestanden stood c) in NE the past participle form (occasionally) extended to preterite OE stingan stang NE sting stungon gestungen stung The levelling still ongoing in non-standard varieties (dialects)

NON-STANDARD DIALECTS: • the past participle used as the past tense form: I seen (yesterday) I have seen • the past tense form used as the past participle: I go I went I have went • the present tense form generalized: I give I have give • “relict” forms: I write I writ I have writ

d) the change of classes strong verbs turning weak ( = regular) – an ongoing process WEAK verbs turning irregular 1. keep - kept ALTERATION OF LONG AND SHORT VOWEL OE ME NE cēpan keepen [ki: p] also: hear-heard meet – met bleed-bled read-read cēpte kepte [kept] ge-cēpt kept [kept]

2. set – set - set ALL THREE FORMS THE SAME ME NE setten sett-(d)e set Also: cast-cast cut-cut hit-hit shut-shut 3. tell - told OE tellan MEtellen tǭlde NE tell also: (y) sett-(ed) set MUTATED PRESENTS tealde (WS), talde (Ang) (y)tǭld told getald teach-taught, bring-brought, think-thought sell-sold, seek-sought etc.

4. send - sent DEVOICED DENTAL SUFFIX IN THE PRETERITE OE sendan ME senden NE sende sent gesend (y)sent t replaced d in 12 th-13 th century, first if the stem ended in a sonorant + d, later extended to stems ending in a sonorant: spend-spent, build-built, dream-dreamt, feel-felt, learn-learnt etc. ! went (from OE wendan)

5. make - made SYNCOPATED PRETERITE AND P. P. OE macian macode gemacod ME māken ma(k)ede (y)ma(k)ed māde mād [meɪd] NE [meɪk]

PERIPHRASTIC TENSES OE PRESENT TENSE – “real” present, universal time, future reference: Þā flōtmenn cumaþ and þē gebindaþ – ‘the pirates are coming and they will fetter you’ OE PRETERITE TENSE – a single act in the past, a continuous act in the past, present perfect, past perfect þā þā menn slēpon, þā cōm his fēonda sum – ‘when the men were sleeping, one of his enemies came’ ic mid ealre heortan þē gewilnode – ‘I have wished for you with all my heart’

PERIPHRASTIC TENSES COMMON IN OE, BUT THEIR USE NOT CONSISTENT WITH THEIR MODERN ENGLISH FUNCTIONS: a) bēon/wesan + present participle –ende þā wæs se cyning openlīce andettende þæt hē wolde fæstlīce þǣm deofolgiendum wiþsācan – ‘then the king publicly acknowledged that he would resolutely renounce the idols’ present participle: present stem + ende (< IE *-nt-) Around 1200 the participle –ende was replaced with the –ing form, possibly under the influence of the construction been on + verbal noun –ing(e) From 16 th century on, the use of “expanded” tenses spread from the north, since 18 th century in the function of progressive tenses.

b) bēon/wesan/habban + past participle OE past participle: strong verbs: ge + perfect stem (zero-grade) + en OE ge-writ-en > ME y-writ-en, y-write, writ-en > NE written weak verbs: ge + present stem – ed/od/d/t OE ge-luf-od > ME y-lov-ed, y-love, lov-ed > NE loved In OE the auxiliary habban was used with transitive, bēon/wesan with intransitive verbs, the meaning of the construction not necessarily perfective. In ME the auxiliary haven spread to intransitive verbs, and the past participle lost its adjectival properties. The use became consistent with the function of perfect tenses

c) willan/sculan + infinitive After the year 1200 shal ‘to be obliged’ and will ‘to want’ lost some of their modal meaning and started to be used for future time reference. 18 th century: will volition in the 1 st person, simple futurity in the 2 nd and 3 rd; shall obligation in the 2 nd and 3 rd, simple futurity in the 1 st person. Infinitive (nomen actionis: < *-ono-, inflected in West Germanic in the Genitive and in the Dative singular) OE uninflected (bare) infinitive: present stem + an OE inflected infinitive: tō + present stem + -enne/anne (supine) ME: tō becomes a simple infinitive marker, -enne/anne merges with –an to –en, which subsequently disappeares. The supine function rendered (for a while) with the for to infinitive.

1 Whan that Aprille, with his shoures soote The drought of March hath perced to the roote And bathed every veyne in swich licour, Of which vertu engendred is the flour; 5 Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne, And smale foweles maken melodye, 10 That slepen al the nyght with open eye (So priketh hem Nature in her courages); heath, heather fugol > fowl eage > eye rennen ran runnen rinnan ræn -runnen (III)

Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; 15 And specially from every shires ende Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende, The hooly blisful martir for to seke That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke. cūþ > couth, uncouth

Bifil that in that sesoun, on a day, 20 In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage To Caunterbury with ful devout courage, At nyght were come into that hostelrye Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye 25 Of sondry folk, by aventure yfalle In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle, That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde. befallen - impersonal verb (befallen, befel/befil, befallen (VII) cumen cam, cām cuman cōm cumen cōmon cumen (IV)

THE MOOD OE: indicative, imperative, subjunctive imperative singular: base form (SV) or base + e/a (WV) imperative plural: same as present indicative plural Lufe þīn nēahstan! Nim sume tiʒele! Bycʒaþ ēow ele! subjunctive singular: present stem + e perfect stem + e subjuntive plural: present stem + en perfect stem + en

The use of subjunctive in OE: • in independent sentences wish or command: Gōd sīe þē milde! Ne hē ealu ne drince oþþe wīn! • in dependent clauses after verbs of desire, command, purpose, potentiality, hypothetical comparison, concession… Geongum mannum gedafenaþ þæt hīe leornien sumne wīsdōm. Ic wilnode þæt þū! hām wǣre In ME both subjunctive endings were lost. The only distinctive preterite subjunctive form left is were. The use of modal auxiliaries spread in ME and NE.

Modal Verbs can, could OE cunnan ‘know’ cann canst cann pl. cunnon pret. cūþe p. p. cūþ OE cann > ME can > NE [‘kæn] OE cūþe > ME cude > NE could (remodelled after would, should)

may, might OE magan ‘to be able’ mæg meaht, miht mæg pl. magon pret. meahte, mehte, mihte p. p. meaht, miht OE mæg > ME mai > NE [meɪ] may OE mihte > ME mīhte > NE [maɪt] might

must OE ‘to be allowed to’ mōt mōst mōt pl. mōton pret. mōste OE mōste > ME mō ste > NE mūst, must > [mʌst] must ! mustn’t = obliged to not do sth <‘not to be allowed to’

shall, should OE sculan ‘to be obliged’ scealt sceal pl. sculon pret. scōlde OE sceal > ME shal, shaul > NE [ʃæl] OE scōlde > shō lde > NE [ʃʊd] should shan’t > shaln’t < shall not

wiil, would OE: willan ‘want’ wille wilt wille pl. willaþ pret. wolde OE wolde > ME wō lde > NE wūld, owu(l)d [wʊd] NE won’t < woll not < ME wolle = new formation, variant of wille

ought OE agan ‘have, owe’ āg/āh āhst āg/āh pl. āgon pret. āhte OE āg > ME ǭw > NE [əʊ] owe ‘< have the obligation/grudge’ OE āhte > ME ǭughte > NE [ɔ: t] ought (monophthongized before –ht) Shakespeare: You ought him a thousand pounds. own = backformaion of owner or < p. p. own < āgen 17 th c.