English Grammar The Beginning
In richness, good sense, and convenience, no other of the living languages may be put beside English. Jakob Grimm
Language is a means of human communication. Language is also the most basic and marvellously complex instrument of culture. The English language consists of three constituent parts: the phonological system, the lexical system, the grammatical system.
Phonetics is a science which studies the phonic system of the language (sounds, intonation, etc. ) Lexicology is a science which studies the word-stock of the lan guage, its building material (words, phrases, etc. ) You can have perfect pronunciation and the richest vocabulary imaginable, but you won't be able to speak a language if you don't know how to make up sentences with the help of which we commu nicate, that is if you don't know the grammar of the language. Grammar is a science which studies the structure of the language. The two parts of English Grammar are: Morphology and Syntax. Morphology deals with parts of speech. Syntax studies the sentence, different types of sentences and their meanings.
SYNTAX The word «Syntax» comes from Old Greek, where it meant «военный строй» . In Old Greek grammar schools the term was transferred to Grammar to stress the importance of word order in the sentence. The sentence is a unit of speech which expresses a complete thought, and has a correct grammatical form and intonation. Every sentence has modality, which shows the speaker's attitude towards reality.
Sentences are classified on two principles: according to the aim of communication according to their structure.
I. According to the aim of communication sentences may be declarative, interrogative, and imperative. Declarative sentences express statements, facts in the affirmative or in the negative form. Interrogative sentences ask for some information. Imperative sentences express commands, requests and invitations
Ex. I. Define the type of the sentence according to the purpose of the utterance. 1. Ireland is often called the «Emerald Isle» because of its lush green countryside. 2. What's the best way to learn a foreign language? 3. Respect other people's customs when you travel. 4. Example is the only way of educating (Albert Einstein). 5. Get out of the car right now! 6. Would you give him my message, please? 7. You are forget ting yourself! 8. English is a member of the Indo European family of languages. 9. Do you believe in UFO (Unidentified Flying Objects)? 10. Be careful driving while it is snowing! 11. Curiosity is the begin ning of knowledge. 12. What a beautiful sunset it is! 13. What do you know about marketing? 14. Watch out! 15. Finish your work, please. 16. In this part of the country birds fly south in winter.
Ex. II. Construct a declarative, an interrogative, an imperative or an exclamatory sentence. 1. Аn interesting book (excl. ). 2. My friend's address (inter. ). 3. Peter's library (decl. ). 4. A map of the United States (imper. ). 5. A small island (excl. ). 6. Mountains of Great Britain (decl. ). 7. Shakespeare's birthplace (inter. ). 8. An exciting thriller (excl. ). 9. A different example (imper. ). 10. The capital of the Republic of Ireland (inter. ). 11. An inexpensive way to travel (decl. ). 12. Astrange remark (excl. ). 13. The largest fresh water lake in the world (inter. ). 14. A good time (imper. ). 15. New ways of communication (decl. ).
Ex. Ill. Put the sentences below into the negative and interrogative. 1. A small child sees the world differently from an adult. 2. The world changes very fast. 3. She gets a lot of faxes every day. 4. Our grammar lesson lasts two hours. 5. Jack works at a new computer company. 6. California has a lot of rain in winter. 7. A tree grows in height as well as in diameter. 8. A disjunctive question takes a comma before its tag (tail). 9. Nancy likes to work in the library. 10. He translates a lot of articles into English every day. 11. Each day brings new events and meetings. 12. He understands French better than he speaks it. 13. He has a doctorate degree in linguistics. 14. Brad likes to cook for his friends when he has time. 15. Our teacher gives us a lot of homework.
In the negative form the auxiliary verb «do» is used. Don't be so noisy!
Ex. IV. Make the following imperative sentences negative. 1. Come over at five, please. 2. Call him in the evening. 3. Give him this file. 4. Turn down the TV, please. 5. Think about something else, please. 6. Relax! 7. Show me around this place, please. 8. Send him a fax tomorrow morning. 9. Read this paragraph, please. 10. Look over there! 11. Bring me some paper, please. 12. Check the answer ing machine in the morning. 13. Warm up the tea, please. 14. Open the window, please. 15. Wait for us outside, please. 16. Add some more salt to the soup.
There are the following types of interrogative sentences in English: A general question. It asks whether the statement is positive or negative and requires an affirmative or a negative answer. — Is it cold today? — Yes, it is. — Do you like cold weather? — No, I don't. A special question. It may refer to any word in the sentence and it begins with an interrogative word (who? what? which? when? where? why? ) When and where do you meet? Why is she so cross with you? A special question to the subject (what? who? which? ) doesn't require any auxiliary verb. What makes you so sad ? Who knows the answer? Which of them helps you?
An alternative question. It means choice. Is Dan in or out? Do you learn French or Spanish? A disjunctive question (a tag question). It is a very short question which follows the statement and repeats its meaning. If the statement is affirmative, the question is negative; if the statement is negative, the question is affirmative. You are happy, aren't you? You aren't happy, are you? He never smokes, does he? She smokes, doesn't she?
Ex. V. Put disjunctive questions to the following sentences. 1. They will be at home tonight. 2. The lecture begins at 12 o'clock. 3. She can do it tomorrow. 4. The examination was difficult. 5. He has returned to Moscow. 6. She has a big dog. 7. He lives in that house. 8. 1 am the best student in the class. 9. There are twelve months in a year. 10. There were too many people at the party. 11. Nick likes to tell jokes. 12. He can fix anything. 13. Customs are different in every country. 14. Talk shows have become very popular on our TV. 15. He won the first prize.
Ex. VI. Put general and alternative questions to the following statements. 1. It is cold outside. 2. There is a VCR in his room. 3. Barbara does her shopping twice a week. 4. There are three computers in the office. 5. David comes home late on Mondays. 6. He is fluent in English and German. 7. This office gets a lot of faxes every day. 8. There is tea and coffee on the table. 9. He needs a sleeping bag for the trip. 10. Allan can solve this problem. 11. Jennie has a great new backpack. 12. My brother likes vanilla ice cream. 13. She has black hair and blue eyes. 14. There are several unopened letters on her desk. 15. Bison is another name for buffalo.
II. According to their structure sentences may be divided into simple, compound, and complex. A simple sentence can be extended or unextended. A sentence, which consists only of a subject and a predicate is called unextended. Life is wonderful. Time is short. They met. We had a talk. A sentence which has some secondary parts is called extended. Last night we went for a walk in the centre of Moscow.
A compound sentence consists of two or more coordinated simple sentences. The night was warm, and we walked to the sea. It was late, and I was tired. A complex sentence consists of a principal (independent) clause and of one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses. Nobody knows when she'll come back. How I wish it were true and I hadn't imagined it all. • Although it was hard work, I enjoyed the job.
Ex. I. Classify each of the sentences below according to their structure. 1. Great Britain is a small island, but it is rich in minerals. 2. What an interesting book I bought yesterday! 3. I know that he is in London now. 4. Ask her where he is now. 5. Alicia, Joy, and David came in. 6. Read about the weather and then decide on your vacation. 7. Don't forget! 8. Can you explain the term «brainstorming» to us? 9. My boss gets angry if he is interrupted. 10. I can't explain what it means. 11. Leave me and my friend alone, or I shall call the police. 12. Mike smiled at his colleague, but Steve frowned at him. 13. Is there any hope? 14. If you listen attentively, the meaning will not escape you. 15. To know everything is to know nothing.
Ex II. Model: She has a pleasant personality. What a pleasant personality she has! Model: These are expensive towels. What expensive towels these are! 1. He has made a stupid remark. 2. She has long eyelashes. 3. The store is crowded today. 4. She wears old fashioned clothes. 5. The story sounds unbelievable. 6. The noise was frightening. 7. He has told us an amusing story. 8. The costume looks elegant. 9. He has made a terrible mistake. 10. He is an extraordinary man. 11. The lesson is difficult. 12. Mr. Grayson is a fine speaker. 13. I see a bright star in the sky. 14. The pie is delicious. 15. He has done a superb job.
The main parts of the sentence A sentence may have main and secondary members. The main members of the sentence are: the Subject and the Predicate. The Subject of the sentence is the topic being discussed. The Subject may be expressed by personal pronouns, indefinite pronouns, infinitives, gerunds, substantivised parts of speech. We all hope for the best. A doctor should be competent. Something is wrong. To know you is a privilege. Travelling broadens your mind. The unknown is always interesting.
The Predicate of the sentence is what is said about the subject. According to its meaning the predicate may be either verbal or nominal. Predicate Verbal We study Nominal We are students
The Nominal Predicate expresses facts, states, qualities, characteristics (it cannot denote an action).
Ex. IV. Name the members of the sentence and discriminate between the main and the secondary parts. Say what they are expressed by. 1. She is a first year student. 2. He is playing outside. 3. 1 shall be very glad to see you at my place. 4. My friend's sister is an engineer. 5. He didn't tell us anything about it. 6. She is a very pretty child. 7. There a lot of interesting stories in this book. 8. We knew noth ing about it. 9. She had a son and a daughter. 10. You must go there today. 11. AI and Jack found the missing child. 12. Language stu dents often read, write, and listen to new words. 13. Friday is my birthday. 14. Last year a library, a museum, and a movie theatre were built in our district. 15. The boat suddenly jumped, increased its speed and passed the other racers.
Ex. V. Point out the subjects and say what they are expressed by. 1. Oxford is one of the oldest towns in England. 2. She went out of the room. 3. To live long is the wish of all men. 4. Reading is her favourite occupation. 5. Two is a company and three is a crowd. 6. «On» is a preposition. 7. It was difficult to do it. 8. There is a lamp on the table. 9. A stranger came up to their table. 10. None of the chairs look comfortable. 11. Is London hot in summer? 12. To be or not to be — this is the question. 13. Who could live without water? 14. Not everybody is so lucky. 15. To read is to be transported to another world.
Ex. VI. Discriminate between verbal and nominal predicates. Say what they are expressed by. 1. He went home after the lecture. 2. His voice sounded cheerful. 3. «Thank you, I am feeling much better now» . 4. «The dress is rather expensive» , she remarked. 5. The night was dark and a cold wind was blowing. 6. The roses smell sweet. 7. He didn't know what to say and remained silent. 8. They are colleagues. 9. He took no interest in his story. 10. He has received a letter from his father. 11. He must post the letter at once. 12. We had a snack at the Russian bistro. 13. This file is mine. 14. The room was in disorder. 15. The child felt sleepy.
Ex. VII. Translate into English choosing the right word. 1. Он довольно веселый человек (cheerful, cheerfully). 2. Это был веселый спектакль (cheerful, cheerfully). 3. Это было смелое решение (brave, bravely). 4. Он действовал смело и решительно (brave, bravely). 5. Он робко посматривал на девушку, сидящую напротив него (timid, timidly). 6. Он очень умно пишет (clever, cleverly). 7. Он умный писатель (clever, cleverly). 8. Билл с гордостью рассказывал об успехах сына (proud, proudly). 9. Диана очень гордилась успехом своей команды (proud, proudly). 10. Дорога была хорошая, и поездка была приятной (good, well). 11. По ра дио звучала хорошая мелодия ( ood, well). 12. Ручка хорошо g пишет (good, well). 13. Это хорошая ручка (good, well). 14. Пирог выглядит отлично (good, well). И на вкус он тоже хорош (good, well). 15. Он подозрительно посмотрел на сторублевую банкно ту (suspicious, suspiciously). Банкнота действительно выглядела подозрительно (suspicious, suspiciously). 16. Запах газа был очевиден (distinct, distinctly). Мы его явно ощущали (distinct, distinctly). 17. Этот цвет выглядит совсем по другому при свете дня (different, differently). 18. Он сделал это совсем по другому в этот раз (different, differently). 19. Его предложение звучит (отдает) нечестно(стью) (dishonest, dishonestly). 20. Он поступил нечестно (dishonest, dishonestly).
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