Egyptian Architecture By Valentine Silenok EFL lecture at Faculty of Fine Arts(MSU)
Early Development Architectural style developed during the Pre-Dynastic Period c. 4000 BC. Function Religious beliefs of eternal life, resulted in an impressive sepulchral architecture, tomb building started as soon as a Pharaoh was named, and continued throughout his life until his death. Massive, static, and serene architecture emerged from the need to obtain stability in stone walls. Materials - Building stones- were used in monumental buildings - Wood - rarely used as a building material, since there are no natural resources of wood in Egypt - Bricks - sun dried bricks were used extensively in dwellings and small buildings, few examples have therefore survived time. 2
Time line 3
Time line (continuing) 4
Characteristics of Egyptian Architecture Scant tree growth prevented the extensive use of wood as a building material, but because fine clay was deposited by the floodwaters of the Nile, the ceramic arts developed early. Both sun-dried and kiln-dried bricks were used extensively. Fine sandstone, limestone, and granite were available for obelisks, sculpture, and decorative uses. A massive, static, and serene architecture emerged from primitive structures of clay and reeds. The incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the granite buildings was apparently derived from mud wall ornamentation, and the slope given to the masonry walls suggests a method employed originally to obtain stability in the mud walls. 5
The Egyptians developed post-and-lintel construction —the type exclusively used in their monumental buildings—even though the use of the arch was developed during the dynasty of Snefru (2780– 2689 B. C. ). Walls were immensely thick. Columns were confined to the halls and inner courts. Roofs, invariably flat, suited to the lack of rain, were of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns. 6
The massive sloping exterior walls, containing only a few small openings, as well as the columns and piers that they concealed, were covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial carvings in brilliant colors. Many motifs of Egyptian ornament are symbolic, such as the scarab, or sacred beetle, the solar disk, and the vulture. Hieroglyphics were decoration as well as records of historic events. 7
Architectural Style • Statues of Pharaohs and sanctuaries of gods in temples and sarcophagus in tombs dominated the whole architectural layout. • Walls immensely thick and sloping - structural requirement for balancing (vertical walls of stone are unstable) • Stone Columns closely spaced - Large spans were not possible • Stone Lintels - massive with short spans, stone is a material that has a weak tensile strength • Flat roofs - Domes and vaults were unknown in Egypt • Small Openings - large doors and windows are not possible in stone construction, this also secured privacy to the religious structures inaccessible to the public • Hieroglyphs - recording of historic events in stone obelisks and walls • Religious symbols - ( scarabs, solar disk) essential component for the decoration of all architectural elements • Single storey buildings 8
Architectural Elements and their Building Techniques • Arches and vaults 9
Corbels • Corbels were widely used in stone buildings; and corbelled arches continued to be constructed a long time after the true arch had been invented. They can be found in pyramids and occasionally in temples. The use of corbelled instead of true arches limited the width of the free space underneath, but required less dressing of stones. 10
False Doors • In tombs and temples for the dead there were niches for offerings, the back walls of which were given the form of doors. The nourishment that was offered to the dead, could be real food placed on an offering slab or symbolic food carved into a stela. The earlier three dimensional executions of these doors gave way to a simpler painted form during the New Kingdom. False doors were often highly decorated and marked with the names and titles of the grave's owner. • 11
Foundations • Stone buildings were often erected on rock surfaces. When foundations had to be laid, the building pit was first filled with water and the resulting horizontal lines were marked on the walls. The water was then removed and the pit filled with sand up to the marks. This was covered with several layers of broken rock on which the rock slabs forming walls and pillars were placed. • At Karnak wall foundations never go deeper than two to three meters. At Luxor close to the river, walls were built on three layers of stone blocks each about 80 cm high and the brick foundations of the colonnades at the Ramesseum were less than two meters thick. 12
Pavements • Unlike floors in private homes which were never paved in Pharaonic times, temple courtyards and floors were often covered with flagstones. Roads were, apart from a few cases which belonged to temple complexes or where heavy loads were routinely moved along them, made of compacted earth, dried almost as hard as stone by the sun. 13
Pillars • From simple, barely adorned granite columns, pillars evolved into stone plants: trunks of palm trees and bundles of lotus plants, reeds or papyrus, often used side by side. Pillars were either freestanding or engaged, sometimes they were purely ornamental, never more so than in the case of pillar reliefs carved into walls. 14
The Columns of Ancient Egypt Tent Pole style columns in the Festival Temple of Tuthmosis III at Karnak 15
Hathor Columns at Dendera Types of Columns Lotiform Columns Hathor Columns at Dendera 16
An example of Open Capital engaged Columns Types of Columns A Closed (bud) Style Capital and An example of Open Capital engaged Columns 17
Types of Columns Osiride Pillars, normally identifiable by the crossed arms. An Open Papyrus Column. 18
Stairs • Unlike many modern stairs which are often lightly built of either wood or steel, ancient Egyptian stairs were generally massive affairs made of bricks or, in temples, of rock. As most towns were built in the plain, there was rarely need for wide public stairs. Town houses sometimes had second or third floors, which could be reached by flights of stairs built of mud bricks or wood and the flat roofs of most houses were accessible and often used for 19 sleeping and cooking.
Stela • These are often freestanding upright slabs of stone bearing inscriptions and at times reliefs. They may be commemorative, sometimes they were erected to indicate borders or boundaries. 20
Mastabas • Introduction • Ancient Egyptians believed in after life and did their best to build lasting tombs, to preserve the body, and to bury with it the finest commodities that might be needed for the sustenance and eternal enjoyment of the deceased. Such tombs are nowadays known as Mastabas, from their resemblance to the low benches built outside the modern Egyptian house. 21
Development of Mastabas 22
The Second and Third Dynasties • In the Second and Third Dynasties developed the ‘stairway’ mastaba. The tomb chamber with its attendant magazines was sunk much deeper and cut in the rock below. Steps and ramps led from the north end of the top of the mastaba to connect with a shaft which descended to the level of the tomb 23 chamber.
• In the Fourth Dynasty a small offering chapel developed, tacked on to the mastaba, or an offering room was constructed within the mastaba itself. Tomb chambers were sunk more deeply still, approached by a short horizontal passage from a vertical shaft sunk from the north end of the top of the superstructure; therefore, these were often called as ‘shaft’ mastabas. 24
Example of Mastabas • Mastabas at Gizeh 25
Mastaba of Thi, Sakkâra 26
Materials • Building stones - were used in monumental buildings - Wood - rarely used as a building material, since there are no natural resources of wood in Egypt - Bricks - sun dried bricks were used extensively in dwellings and small buildings, few examples have therefore survived time. Plentiful supply of soil which, mixed with water into mud, poured into moulds and either sun-dried or kiln-fired, provided bricks for every kind of structure. Kilnfired bricks were used only for drains, pavements and the facing of certain major buildings. Reeds, papyrus and palmbranch ribs, plastered over with clay, were tractable materials available in the Nile valley. Reed matting was used in between mud-bricks courses in reinforcement. There was a lack of timber for major building work but Egyptians Kings imported cedar wood by ship from Byblos, the ancient port just north of 27 Beirut.
Bricks making process 28
Pyramids • The first true pyramid i. e the ‘step’ pyramid of the Pharaoh Zoser at Sakkara demonstrates the most important stages of the evolution of a pyramid from a mastaba. Further stages of development are marked by one at Meydum and by two at Dahshur by Seneferu, first king of the Fourth Dynasty, including the so called ‘bent’ pyramid. The finest true pyramids are the famous three at Gizeh, built by the Fourth Dynasty successors of Seneferu. Pyramids were built in a series of concentric slices or layers around a steep pyramid core, so that the whole mass first appeared in step-like tiers, until, in the case of the true pyramidal form, the steps had been filled in with packing blocks and brought with finely finished facings to their ultimate shape, at the chosen angle of inclination. 29
Proposed methods to construct a pyramid 30
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The pyramid of Cheops(cut-out) 35
KWIC Example Input: bar sock car dog town fog Four steps: Input Circular shift Alphabetize Output: bar sock car dog car fog town sock bar town fog Circular shift positions: 1 5 10 14 18 23 Alphabetize: 1 10 14 23 5 18 36
Design Considerations • Changes in algorithm: line shifting can be performed … • on each line as it is read from the input device • on all the lines after they are read • on demand when the alphabetization requires a new set of shifted lines • Changes in data representation: circular shifts … • can be stored explicitly • implicitly (as index and offsets) • Extra Features: • Have the system eliminate circular shifts that start with certain noise words (such as "a", "and", etc. ). • Make the system interactive • allow the user to delete lines from original list and re-output alphabetized list • Performance: Both space and time • Reuse: To what extent can the components serve as reusable entities 37
Call-and-Return style • Goal: achieve modifiability and scalability • Substyles: • Main-program-and-subroutine • Decompose program hierarchically. Each component gets control from its parent. • Object-oriented 38
Object-oriented sub-style • Objects help achieve modifiability by encapsulating internal secrets from environment • Access to objects is only through methods (constrained forms of procedure calls) 39
• Input: read lines and stores them in Text array (buffer), index records starting position of each line • Circular shift: Creates an index of starting positions for circular shifts, stores these in Word index • Alphabetizer: Takes the input from Text array and Word index, creates an index of shifts which are alphabetized 40
Design Considerations • Changes in algorithm: • Somewhat, however explicit data structure limits possibilities • “Show me your data structures and I’ll tell your algorithm” – Fred Brooks • Changes in data representation: • Not possible, because data is made available explicitly to all components. • Extra Features: • Have the system eliminate circular shifts that start with certain noise words • Medium, requires changes to existing component • Make the system interactive • Medium, requires changes to Alphabetizer • Performance: • Space: Good, data is shared • Time: Bad, no concurrency • Reuse: To what extent can the components serve as reusable entities • Bad, explicit data representation dependencies 41
• Line storage: Exports operations for getting characters in different positions • Circular shifter: function SHIFT(l, w, c) returns cth character in the wth word of the lth shift • Alphabetizer: function ITH(i) returns lines in sorted order 42
Design Considerations • Changes in algorithm: • Good, data is made available through fine-grained operations • Example: Alphabetizer can compute lines “on-demand” saving work if we stop early • Changes in data representation: • Good, data is hidden behind interface • Example: Line storage could keep information from disk • Extra Features: • Have the system eliminate circular shifts that start with certain noise words • Medium, requires changes to existing component • Make the system interactive • Medium, may require Alphabetizer to interact with Line storage • Performance: • Space: Good, data can be shared through function calls • Time: Bad, no concurrency • Reuse: To what extent can the components serve as reusable entities • Medium, explicit interface dependencies 43
Data-Flow style Goals: achieve reuse and modifiability Data-flow Batch Sequential • components are independent programs • each step runs to completion before the next starts • each batch of data is transmitted as a whole between steps Classic data-processing approach 44 Pipes and Filters
Pipe-and-Filter sub-style • Incremental transformation of data by successive components • Filters transform data using little contextual information and retain no state between instantiations • Pipes are stateless and are used to move streams of data between filters • A pipe’s source end connects to a filter’s output port; sink end connects to filter’s input port • Ex. • cat file | gawk ‘/. */ { if (match($0, ”; {}”)) print $0; }’ | wc 45
Pipe-and-Filter substyle. . . • Pipes and filters run non-deterministically until no more computations or transmissions are possible • Ex. In Unix this means EOF + Simple to reason about, eases maintenance, enhances reuse, can easily enhance performance by parallelizing or distributing - Interactive apps are difficult, filters can’t cooperate to solve a problem 46
• Each component creates actual text representation for output to passes to next component • Simple design, easy to understand 47
Design Considerations • Changes in algorithm: • Good, as long as it doesn’t require sharing data • Example: Alphabetizer can use any sorting routine • Changes in data representation: • Bad, data is passed explicitly as complete text • Extra Features: • Have the system eliminate circular shifts that start with certain noise words • Good, easy to insert new component in pipeline • Make the system interactive • Bad, there is no stored intermediate representation • Performance: • Space: Bad, data must be copied • Time: • Good, components run in parallel • Bad, copying takes time • Reuse: To what extent can the components serve as reusable entities. • Good, depends only on very common textual representation 48
Heterogeneous Use • Systems are generally built from multiple styles • Three kinds of heterogeneity: • Locationally heterogeneous: Some components in one style participate in another style • Ex. A layer in a layered style is also a client in client-server architecture • Components make use of other styles • Simultaneously heterogeneous: its actually two different styles • Ex. Client-Server Layered Style • All components play simultaneous roles • Hierarchically heterogeneous: a component of one style, when decomposed is structured according to another style • Ex. A filter written using objects • Complete encapsulation 49
Key points from today • Describe advantages and disadvantages of call-andreturn and data-flow (sub-)styles • Be able to select and apply the call-and-return or data -flow (sub-)styles • Sample questions: • Portability is important for the system being built, what style might you choose? • Here are the requirements for a system x … sketch a pipeand-filter architectural design for the system 50
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