Domestic Rhetoric “Going Public” Matthew Butterworth Caitlin Mc. Garr Chelsea Mullarney
What is “Going Public” ► The idea that the President goes straight to the people to get support for initiatives. § The people will then influence the policy makers ► According to Mel Laracey the point of going public is to go over the head of Congress so that the constituents will pressure their individual representatives to go along with what the President wants. § Political Mobilization § Can be done by: ► Contacting Representatives ► Psychological Effects
“Only a newspaper can put the same thought at the same time before a thousand readers. A newspaper is an adviser that need not be sought out, but come of its own accord and talks to you briefly every day about the commonwealth, without distracting you from your private affairs. ” - Alexis De Tocqueville
History of Going Public Before the 20 th Century Can represent the direct will of the people ► Federalist Papers ► President’s aligned themselves with specific newspapers, especially in the 19 th century ► Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation ► Andrew Johnson- “Going Public” gone bad ► 20 th Century Presidents that we’ll talk about: ► § FDR § Kennedy § Clinton
“Going Public” and Setting the Agenda Article testing the State of the Union on public agenda ► Found that Foreign Policy, Economics, and Civil Rights were the most covered topics in the State of the Union ► Research found that the President does have agenda-setting power, can be seen as “agenda gate-keeper” ►
Today The article from the previous slide was from 1995, does it still hold true today? ► Gallup Poll from October 4 -7, 2007, “Most Important Issues: ► § All Economic Issues overall 22% 1. Situation in Iraq 33% 2. Poor health care/hospitals; high cost of health care 13% 3. Immigration/Illegal Aliens 9% 4. Economy Overall 9%
Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Fireside Chats
Overview of the Fireside Chats FDR is credited, according to Russell D. Buhite and David W. Levy with transforming and modernizing the role of the presidency ► He had a unique ability to communicate with the American people. ► Used the radio as a means of communication even as Governor of NY ► Term “Fireside Chat” came from an employee of CBS ► “I never saw him. But I knew him. Can you have forgotten How, with his voice, he came into our house, The President of the United States, Calling us friends…”
May 7, 1933: Progress Made During the New Deal’s First Two Months ► Buhite and Levy: “he wanted to establish a momentum for crucial bills that he had proposed, but that the Congress had not yet acted upon. ” ► These bills included the: § § § Federal Emergency Relief Act Tennessee Valley Authority Railroad bill The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) National Industrial Recovery Act
Important Quotes 1. Statement of how the President had bills that he had suggested to Congress • Appeal to the people through the prospect of employment 2. Puts faith in the people of the United States • Motivates them to support him 3. Talks to the people as equals
Fireside Chat Video May 7, 1933 Clips from the Fireside Chat
April 28, 1935: Defending the WPA and Pressing for Social Security The purpose was to tell the public about a series of laws he had proposed to congress ► The most important were: ► § National Industrial Recovery Act (reauthorization was needed) § Social Security Act ► He wanted public support for his proposed initiatives
Important Quotes ► He alienates the people who oppose him: § “No reasonable person” He notes all of the accomplishments of his plans so far as a reason to support his legislation further ► Encourages Congress’ support, but through the use of the public as a tool ►
Fireside Chats revisited There have been many serious attempts at recreating FDR’s connection with the people ► There have also been spoofs, including this spoof of a Fireside Chat with George W. Bush ►
JFK: “Going Public” with Space Exploration September 12, 1962 Rice University
Setting the Stage After the failure of the Bay of Pigs, and the numerous Soviet “firsts” in terms of space exploration as the Cold War began to heat up (first satellite, animal, man), the Kennedy Administration needed a new rallying point for the American people. ► During Kennedy’s “Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs” of May 1961, he set forth a plan: “I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon…” ► However, at this point NASA had only accumulated 15 minutes and 22 seconds of manned flight time. ► JFK’s speech at Rice University was his attempt to justify his ambitious plan, while gaining the American people’s support in the endeavor. ►
Rhetorical Constructions of Space, Time, and the American People The Speech (shortened) ► The goal of this speech was to convince the American people that going to the moon was a feasible and worthwhile goal to attempt. ► Thus, he has to motivate his audience and the American people as a whole to “reach for the moon. ” ► He did this through specific rhetorical constructions of the three terms listed above, defining them to best orient his audience towards the attainment of the goal, or at least a belief that the goal of landing a man on the moon was attainable. ►
Rhetorical Constructions of Space ► ► ► The most important aspect of his speech was making the moon and outer space in general seem to be a reachable destination, by minimizing the infinity of space. It was important that he had a tangible destination in the moon, or else it would have been nearly impossible to define the goal. Kennedy helped lessen the impossibility of landing on the moon by defining a set of concentric circles that tied the audience together with the larger beyond that could now include outer space. “We meet at a college noted for knowledge, in a city noted for progress, in a State noted for strength. ” “…this city of Houston, this state of Texas, this county of the United States. ”
Space, Continued In this spatial argument, the moon seemed less the unfamiliar territory of space than the next largest locale toward which we must venture. ► Kennedy referred to space as a “new sea” upon which “we set sail, ” which helped to enforce the idea that space exploration was in fact possible. ► He defines the moon as the next logical step when he says, “But why, some say, the moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic? ” ► He seems to eliminate the need for a rational basis by using this argument. He seems to be saying, it is there so we should prove to ourselves we can conquer it, as he says, “Well, space is there, and we’re going to climb it. ” ►
JFK’s Rhetorical Construction of Time ► ► ► Through his rhetoric, JFK generates both a sense of urgency and one of perseverance, since he didn’t know how long it would take for the technology to accomplish his goal to actually be available. Early in the address he stated that “we meet in an hour of change and challenge, in a decade of hope and fear, in an age of both knowledge and ignorance. ” Kennedy articulated the urgency by providing pivotal moments in human history, but asking the audience to compact 5, 000 years into 50. Thus, for example, “Christianity began less than 2 years ago, ” and “only last week did we develop penicillin and television and power…” As he continues, the intervals between events become smaller, and the coming goal seems far more attainable when put into this perspective, and there is an escalating sense of achievement. This escalation infers that the next great accomplishment in American history must happen starting TOMORROW. Kennedy also further emphasizes this idea by speaking of the technologies he had seen in the last twenty four hours as he visited NASA facilities in the area. Past, present, and future were tied together. It was the audience’s turn to make history. The time was upon them.
The Role of the People ► ► ► The speech offered the American people a role they wanted to fulfill. He portrayed them as freedom-fighters, adventurers, dedicated workers, and unselfish aspirers to national progress. Kennedy emphasized the audience’s debt to the past and their obligation to the future. Either they will take their place among their ancestors by pursuing “one of the greatest adventures of all time, ” or they would be left behind, since space exploration “will go ahead, whether we join in it or not. ” This appeal to nationalism referenced the Space Race, and Kennedy emphasized the moral imperative that the United States beat the Soviets to the moon. (see quotes) He alluded to the idea that space exploration could be abused if power fell into the wrong hands. This flattered their ego and was relatively easy to achieve according to Kennedy. The moon was the ultimate challenge, the ultimate measure of a nation and a people’s worth, and now his audience could see why this was a worthy cause to strive for. The most referenced line in the passage leaves the audience little choice but to fall in line with Kennedy’s lofty goals. In fact, he leaves them wanting to do just that, because they were worthy of it.
The Legacy ► “The Rice University address demonstrated how and why romantic frontier rhetoric must provide a role for the public even in highly complex technological endeavors, thereby moving the space program into the public realm of knowledge and enabling everyday people to feel a part of the project. In other words, Kennedy’s romantic space rhetoric worked because it allowed the people to be romanced by it. ”
JFK and the Promotion of Domestic Crisis April 1962 Steel Crisis
Background ► ► ► On April 10, 1962 U. S. Steel delivered a press release to the media stating that they were raising the price of steel by $6. 00 per ton. This announcement was immediately followed by announcements from other steel companies. Kennedy was furious, not only because the price increase placed his economic program in jeopardy, but because it posed a threat to his leadership. In the days that followed, Kennedy used his position to escalate a steel price increase into a crisis that threatened the freedom and security of all Americans. This is a wonderful example of domestic crisis promotion, when presidents explicitly advance a claim of crisis or implicitly treat a domestic issue as a crisis through their public rhetoric. Through his public statements, Kennedy made it known that his administration would not stand for the steel companies’ behavior, and attempted to seize public opinion and use it as a leverage in appeals to U. S. Steel. This article argued that domestic crisis rhetoric has four characteristics: magnification, polarization, value dissociation, and symbolic actions, each can be seen in JFK’s treatment of the steel price increase.
Magnification ► ► ► This is when a president makes public remarks about an issue in order to attract citizen attention and to heighten the issue’s perceived significance. This also involves emphasizing the issue as an urgent matter of great public import that poses a threat to the country as a whole. At a news conference on April 11 th, Kennedy opened by detailing how U. S. steel and others had raised their prices. News Conference (see quotation) Rather than waiting for the reporters to ask him about the issue, he framed the dispute as one of great importance to make sure it would dominate the following question and answer period. He also enlarged the situation by discussing its negative consequences that would result such as increased home and car costs, and greatly increased inflation that would have a harmful effect on the economy.
Polarization is when a speaker simplifies an issue by dichotomizing it and attempting to make the audience two highly contrasting groups that represent two sides of an issue. There is no gray area. ► This helps to garner the public’s support because the presidentifies himself as the people’s advocate against the private interests of a minority. ► In the news conference, Kennedy clearly defined U. S. Steel and the other companies as the unjust enemy. (see quote) ► He felt this harsh language was necessary to gain citizen support for his position, and in many ways the polarizing discourse fed on the average American’s hesitancy towards large corporations by portraying them as a “selfish minority. ” ►
Polarization, Cont. Kennedy further defined himself as the protector of the public interest. (see quote, “In this serious hour…”) ► By saying that the American people would find this hard to accept, he is basically telling the people this is how you should feel, and I feel this way too so I am linked with you. ► This transformed the steel price increase from a controversy between the White House and U. S. Steel to one of private versus public interests, which private interests being pursued at the expense of the larger public. ► This is further emphasized when Kennedy at the end refers to his inaugural address: “Some time ago I asked each American to consider what he would do for his country and I asked the steel companies. In the last 24 hours we had their answer. ” ►
Value Dissociation ► ► ► In domestic issues, presidents often face the problem of pitting two traditional American values against one another. Through value dissociation, presidents pay homage to both values at conflict in a crisis, but still emphasizes one as more important in the given situation. In the 1962 Steel Crisis, the two values clashing were freedom and responsibility. The steel companies should have had the freedom to raise their prices in a capitalist society, but JFK argues that civic responsibility should be the dominant value in this situation. (see quote “Price and wage…”) He attempts to resolve the conflict by saying the two values could and should coexist. He reassures the people of his belief in the free enterprise system, but also adds that this freedom is a privilege not to be abused. He also noted multiple times throughout the speech that his administration had not tried to force its will upon the steel companies, since they were free to do what they wanted and “there is a very proper limitation to the power of the government in this free country. ”
Kennedy Conquers Big Steel The strategy worked. ► On April 13 th, the Inland Steel Company announced, “We do not feel that an advance in steel prices at this time would be in the national interest. ” ► All the other steel companies quickly followed, with U. S. Steel being the last at 5: 28 P. M. , when the wire services announced that “in the light of the competitive developments today, and after all other current circumstances, ” U. S. Steel has rescinded its price increase. ” ► “Going to the public” worked for Kennedy, and over 60 percent of the public supported his position in the dispute. ►
Bill Clinton “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”
Bill Clinton: Examining Diversity ► Local travel used to court voters ► 3 Safe Characteristics: § § § Based on where they live Occupation How they vote ► Central to American Politics: Interest Groups § Groups approximate diversity of America ► No guarantee of equal access/opportunities ► Aspects of the group’s interests are sharpened or exagerrated
Bill Clinton: Examining Diversity ► “Second Constitution” – President provides leadership in public opinion § Mediate § To see & be seen § Gather information ► Presidential Persuasion § Focus policy priorities § Increase support for proposals
Bill Clinton, “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” ► Persuasion: Presidents influence “at the margins” § “Easy issues” are value driven preferences, harder to sway § “Hard issues” are part of the political experience of the President, easier to sway ► In the 1992 Presidential Campaign, Clinton advocated allowing gays in the military (a decision that falls on the presidential office) § Public opinion was that the press covered the issue too much
Clinton, “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” ► ► Clinton proposed “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” policy as a compromise According to Political Research Quarterly: § § The proposal statistically cost him the support of his opposition overall Persuaded 12% of supporters to support the bill All groups retained the intensity of their opinions Women always more supportive of the bill than men ► Two possible effects: ► Conclusions: § Many gays and lesbians “came out” as the public became more aware of the issue § Clinton may have redefined the issue: previously an issue of traditionalism, now and issue of equality values § Presidential approval can be “invested” for policy support
Ronald Reagan and the War on Drugs
Address to the Nation: Campaign Against Drug Abuse ► ► Was broadcasted on September 14, 1986 Regan starts with the progress made § ► ie, with High School Seniors and marijuana usage Then Nancy spoke as “a mother” § ► Discussed rolls of mothers and young people 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. “Drug-Free Workplace” “Drug-Free Schools” Public protection and available treatment International co-operation Strengthening law enforcement Expand public awareness Reagan set out 6 goals that would be presented to Congress after:
The Impact of the “War on Drugs” Rhetoric Study conducted by Whitford and Yates in 2003 ► Affect of President’s drug rhetoric on the US Attorney’s and their prosecution of drug related crimes ► Presidential rhetoric goes beyond influencing the public and Congress ► Prosecutorial Discretion ►
“Going Public” ► The analysis and the examples by numerous Presidents are by no means all inclusive: § President Bush § President Clinton ► And it is not limited to just domestic speaking. § The Iraq War ► Presidents have success in their domestic policies when they use public support and it is a common occurrence especially for social issues: § Especially during election time
References Bailey, M. ; L. Sigelman and C. Wilcox. (2003). Presidential Persuasion on Social Isses: A Two-Way Street? Political Research Quarterly, 56(1), 49 -58. Beasley, V. B. (2001). Making diversity safe for democracy: American pluralism and the presidential local address, 1885 -1992. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 87, 25 -40. Bostdorff, D. M. and D. J. O'Rourke. (1997). The Presidency and the Promotion of Domestic Crisis: John Kennedy's Management of the 1962 Steel Crisis. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 27(2), 343 -361. Buhite, R. D. , and D. W. Levy, eds. FDR's Fireside Chats. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. Cohen, J. E. (1995). Presidential Rhetoric and the Public Agenda. American Journal of Political Science, 39(1) 87 -107 Jordan, J. W. (2003). Kennedy's Romantic Moon and Its Rhetorical Legacy for Space Exploration. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 6(2), 209 -232 Laracey, M. Presidents and the People: the Partisan Story of Going Public. College Station: Texas A&M UP, 2002. Whitford, A. and J. Yates. (2003). Policy Signals and Executive governance: Presidential Rhetoric in the War on Drugs. Journal of Politics, 64(4), 995 -1012
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