DEMO-VERSION LINKS TO EXTERNAL DOCUMENTS DO NOT WORK

DEMO-VERSION: LINKS TO EXTERNAL DOCUMENTS DO NOT WORK! M 1: Water and Sanitation in Regard to the Millennium Development Goals M 1 -2: Water Basics K. Conradin (1&3) M. Kropac (2&4) Katharina Conradin, seecon international Dr. Johannes Heeb, International Ecological Engineering Society & seecon international Prof. Dr. Petter Jenssen, Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences Dr. Ken Gnanakan, ACTS Bangalore, India © 2006 seecon International gmbh ACTS Agriculture -Crafts Trades - Studies

Credits Materials included in this CD-ROM comprise materials from various organisations. The materials complied on this CD are freely available at the internet, following the open-source concept for capacity building and non-profit use, provided proper acknowledgement of the source is made. The publication of these materials on this CD -ROM does not alter any existing copyrights. Material published on this CD for the first time follows the same open-source concept for capacity building and non-profit use, with all rights remaining with the original authors / producing organisations. Therefore the user should please always give credit in citations to the original author, source and copyright holder. We thank all individuals and institutions that have provided information for this CD, especially the German Agency for Technical Cooperation GTZ, Ecosanres, Ecosan Norway, the International Water and Sanitation Centre IRC, the Stockholm Environment Institute SEI, the World Health Organisation WHO, the Hesperian Foundation, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SIDA, the Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries SANDEC of the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Sanitation by Communities SANIMAS, the Stockholm International Water Institute SIWI, the Water Supply & Sanitation Collaborative Council WSSCC, the World Water Assessment Programme of the UNESCO, the Tear Fund, Wateraid, and all others that have contributed in some way to this curriculum. We apologize in advance if references are missing or incorrect, and welcome feedback if errors are detected. We encourage all feedback on the composition and content of this curriculum. Please direct it either to johannes. heeb@seecon. ch or petter. jenssen@umb. no. K. Conradin seecon

Credits ecosan Curriculum - Credits Concept and ecosan expertise: Compiling of Information: Layout: Photo Credits: Text Credits: Financial support: Johannes Heeb, Petter D. Jenssen, Ken Gnanakan Katharina Conradin Mostly Johannes Heeb & Katharina Conradin, otherwise as per credit. As per source indication. Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC) How to obtain the curriculum material Free download of PDF tutorials: www. seecon. ch www. ecosan. no www. gtz. de/ecosan Order full curriculum CD: johannes. heeb@seecon. ch € 50 (€ 10 Developing Countries) petter. jenssen@umb. no Release: Feedback: Sources Copyright: K. Conradin 1. 0, March 2006, 1000 copies Feedback regarding improvements, errors, experience of use etc. is welcome. Please notify the above email-addresses. Copyright of the individual sources lies with the authors or producing organizations. Copying is allowed as long as references are properly acknowledged. seecon

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The Water Circle The global water resources situation Freshwater use Competing uses for Freshwater Increase freshwater demand Water Scarcity • Global Situation • Reasons • Consequences 7. Groundwater • Reserves • Depletion 8. Water Pollution 9. Basic Water Needs K. Conradin

Water Resources – The global situation 10, 000 km 3 119, 000 km 3 net 91, 000 km 3 Over 5, 000 km 3 2, 120 km 3 stored in underground aquifers. of rainfalling on land after accounting for evaporation. in natural lakes. in made storage facilities reservoirs. in rivers – constantly replaced from rainfall and melting snow, ice. Source: (1)

Water Circle - General Source: (1)

The water cycle The global water cycle is comprised of many small, local or regional water cycles, depending on the precipitation, the topography, soil characteristics and many other factors, which is illustrated by the figure below. © P. Jenssen

Water Cycle – Human Influence Rise in sea level: S Water bound in snow and ice (glaciers, poles) is melting due to global change and climate warming. This results in a rise in the sea level between 15 and 90 cm by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). This threatens millions of people living on small islands or close to the seashore. S The rise in sea level is increased as a result of thermal expansion of the oceans – warmer water has a larger volume than colder water. S The effects include among others • Increased coastal erosion, • higher storm-surge flooding • more extensive coastal inundation • salt water intrusion • increased flood risk • impacts on agriculture and aquaculture through decline in soil and water quality. Adopted from: (11, 5)

Water Cycle – Human Influence Different distribution patterns: S Different distribution patterns likely due to global climate change. S Regions now under water stress can get more rainfall – but also that water scarcity can even be increased. Vice versa, regions with sufficient rainfall can get drier as well. S It is likely that single occurrences are more intensive (droughts & floods). Increase in storage capacity: S There has been a 7 fold increase in global storage capacity since 1950. (artificial lakes, large dam projects etc. ) (12). This has severe consequences on downstream ecosystems.

Freshwater – Use Drinking water: By taking an average of 3 l drinking water per day, the total volume used per capita/year is only roughly 1 m 3 Irrigation: In many countries, agricultural use (food production) makes up for most of the total human water usage. The production of animal calories needs 8 times more water than that of vegetable calories. WBCSD Energy Production: The largest single use of water by industry is for cooling in thermal power generation. Process water: Paper mills, textile firms etc. Large water volumes to be treated. Medium for waste disposal: Figures vary, but according to the WHO only between 0% and 35 % of the wastewaters created get some kind of treatment. Most wastewaters are just induced into nearby waterbodies. Water for products: as an ingredient Source: (1)

Freshwater – Increasing Pressure on Freshwater Human activity Potential Impact Function at risk Population and consumption growth Increased requirement Increases water abstraction & acquisition of cultivated land through wetland drainage. Virtually all ecosystem functions including habitat, production and regulation functions Infrastructure development (dams, dikes, levees, diversions etc. ) Loss of integrity alters timing and quantity of river flows, water Water quantity and quality, temperature, nutrient and habitats, floodplain fertility, sediment transport and thus fisheries, delta economies delta replenishment; blocks fish migrations Eliminates key components of aquatic environment; loss of functions; integrity; habitat and Land conversion biodiversity; alters runoff patterns; inhibits natural recharge, fills water bodies with silt; Natural flood control, habitats for fisheries and waterfowl, recreation, water supply, water quantity and quality Source: (12)

Freshwater – Increasing Pressure on Freshwater Human activity Potential Impact Function at risk Depletes living resources, Food production, water supply, Overharvesting ecosystem functions and water quality and water and exploitation biodiversity (groundwater quantity depletion, collapse of fisheries) Release of pollutants to land, air or water Pollution of water bodies alters chemistry and ecology of rivers, lakes and wetlands; greenhouse gas emissions produce dramatic changes in runoff and rainfall patterns Water supply, habitat, water quality, food production; climate change may also impact hydropower, dilution capacity, transport, flood control Source: (12) Competition from introduced species; alters Introduction Food production, wildlife production and nutrient cycling; of exotic species habitat, recreation and causes loss of biodiversity among native species

Freshwater – Use Source: (1) Domestic use Agricultural use Industrial use

Freshwater – Use ØNear congruence between there regions where the majority of the hungerprone countries are located and the arid zone with savannah type climate. • Seasonal rainfall with intermittent dry spells making the rainfall unreliable • recurrent drought years • high evaporative demand • often vulnerable soils with low permeability and low water holding capacity • Additionally, the area of irrigated land more than doubled in the twentieth century (5). ØThe freshwater use is going to increase drastically over the next couple of decades in order to produce enough food. ØThus, there is an urgent need for agricultural and water policies • rainwater management • rainfall infiltration • water harvesting systems (2)

Freshwater – Increased Demand < 40 % 40 – 80 % 80 – 120 % > 120 % Missing Data Source: (2) Percentage increase in consumptive water use for food production by 2015 compared to today In basically all developing countries, the freshwater use for food production will increase strongly. This can mainly be attributed to population growth – more people require more food, i. e. agricultural products. Meat production needs significantly more water than the production of vegetables.

Source: (29) Water Scarcity – Global Situation 0 – 0. 2: Low water stress 0. 2 – 0. 4: Medium water stress > 0. 4 Severe water stress In 2000, the majority of the sixteen megacities were found along the coasts, within regions experiencing mild to severe water stress (particularly in Asia). The map uses a conventional measure of water stress, the ratio of total annual water withdrawals (1995) divided by the estimated total water availability (average 1961 -1990).

Water Scarcity – General ØWater scarcity is a relative concept (social construct, product of affluence, expectations and customary behaviour, or a result of climate change) (3). ØScarcity often has its roots in water shortage. Drought-affected regions with large climatic variability suffer most (6). ØWater use has been growing at more than twice the rate of the population increase during the last century. (6). ØBy 2025, 1. 8 billion people will live in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity and 2/3 of the world population could be under stress conditions (UN) (6). ØIn most countries, agriculture dominates the demand for water (irrigation). (6). ØPoor communities tend to suffer the greatest health burden from inadequate water supplies and as result of ill-health are unable to move out of a cycle of poverty and disease. (6).

Water scarcity - Reasons There are several reasons for water scarcity 1. Excessive withdrawal from surface waters: 2. The Aral Sea in the former Soviet Union, who has shrunk to less than half of ifs original size, due to the diversion of the main contributing rivers. 1957 Source: (4). 1984 1993 2000 2001

Water Scarcity - Salinisation is a general term for all processes which accumulate salts in soil. It takes place mainly in arid climates. high evaporation insufficient rainfall, water (from rainfall or irrigation) Water ascents, dissolved salts are precipitated and accumulate at the soil surface. M. Kropac Salt accumulation Source: (34)

Water scarcity - Reasons There are several reasons for water scarcity 2. Excessive withdrawal of water from underground aquifers: Along many coasts of the world, excessive fresh water abstraction has allowed sea water to enter aquifers thereby making the water so saline that it is unfit for human use (see following slides on groundwater depletion) (5). 3. 4. interface between freshwater and brackish water will move inland.

Water Scarcity – Salt Water Intrusion into Groundwater Salt attack: Seawater is increasingly infiltrating the drained well fields north of Chennai Source: (32) Distance from the sea coast in m The red lines mark the distance from the sea to which saltwater had intruded in the respective years: In less than 30 years, the seawater has intruded inwards for almost 20 m (32).

Water scarcity – Reasons & Consequences There are several reasons for water scarcity 3. Pollution of fresh water resources: • Limited absorbing capacity • Water quality degradation = one of the main causes of water scarcity. 4. Inefficient use of freshwater: Poor irrigation practices, leakage in water delivery systems, inefficient use by industry and excessive consumption (6). 5. Consequences include: S Inability to sustain ecosystems integrity. Further disturbance and degradation of 'natural' systems. S Conflict potential: Additionally, many water resources are shared by two or more countries possible water conflicts (6).

Groundwater - Reserves Groundwater is the main source of freshwater on earth. Underground water reservoirs often created under different climatic conditions in prehistoric times (fossil groundwater). These reservoirs can now also be located in arid or semi-arid areas today insufficient recharge. Accessible Freshwater Source: (1) = only 1/3 of the total 2. 5 % !

Groundwater – Aquifers Source: (31) An aquifer is a rock layer that contains water and releases it in appreciable amounts. The rock contains water-filled pore spaces, and, when the spaces are connected, the water is able to flow through the matrix of the rock. An aquifer also may be called a water-bearing stratum, lens, or zone. There are confined and unconfined aquifers (14).

Groundwater - Depletion S Groundwater depletion: • Excessive use lowering of groundwater table • Delhi: - 20 m since 1960 (9). • Similar in Mexico City, Bangkok, Manila, Beijing, Madras and Shanghai severe consequences: dugwells without water (1). S Technical innovations and access to them also in developing countries as well have made it possible to drill deeper and deeper borewells and to use stronger and more efficient pumps (5). Source: Down to Earth

Groundwater – Depletion Groundwater Depletion can also be caused by Deforestation: S Deforestation soil degradation and loss of infiltration capacity higher runoff. S Lower evapotranspiration lower atmospheric humidity and moisture convergence reduced cloud formation an rainfall (16). Groundwater Contamination: S It takes longer for groundwater than surface water to be contaminated. S But once groundwater has become contaminated, it is very difficult to clean it again, since the turnover rate is extremely slow (17).

Water Pollution S The current dealing with waste water is fatal: Put shortly, it means mixing different contaminants and waste streams, relying on dilution and causing degradation (10). S The most frequent sources of pollution are human waste, industrial wastes and chemicals, and agricultural pesticides and fertilizers. Key forms of pollution include • faecal coliforms, • industrial organic substances, • acidifying substances from mining aquifers and atmospheric emissions • heavy metals from industry, • ammonia, nitrate and phosphate pollution from agriculture, • pesticide residues (agriculture), • sediments from human-induced erosion to rivers, lakes and reservoirs • salinisation (5). SIWI

Water Pollution – The River Pollution Syndromes Build up of pollutants in a water body with limited water exchange. The outcome of all interactions by which water gets polluted has been described as river syndromes: S salinisation S chemical contamination, encompassing oxygen depletion, metals and agrochemicals S acidification involving decrease of p. H S eutrophication S microbial contamination related to high faecal coli and related pathogens S radionuclide contamination Source: (13) SIWI

++ The River Pollution Syndromes Slow economic development Fast economic development Source: (13) In regions with slow economic development, organic and faecal pollution rose with population growth. More recent issues are eutrophication and chemical pollution. In fast developing regions in parts of Africa, South America and Asia, however, the water pollution issues almost coincide in time, severely complicating efforts of water pollution abatement.

Water Pollution “India's rivers, especially the smaller ones, have all turned into toxic streams. And even the big ones like the Ganga are far from pure. The assault on India's rivers - from population growth, agricultural modernization, urbanization and industrialization - is enormous and growing by the day…. Most Indian cities get a large part of their drinking water from rivers. This entire life stands threatened. ” Source: (33) M. Kropac

Water Basics: Basic Water Needs Source: (13) 50 litres of water per day person is the recommended minimum for household use (basic water requirements) including • drinking water for survival (min: 5 l/person/day, including cooking water) • water for human hygiene, • water for sanitation services • modest household needs for preparing food Up to 70 times as much can be needed to meet the consumptive water use for producing a projected human diet for one person based on a kcal consumption of 3000 kcal/day, depending on the composition (11). production of meat calories needs at least 8 times more water than that of vegetable calories (1).

Water Basics: Basic Water Needs Source: (1) The adjacent chart shows the wide variation in average per capita domestic consumption from different nations.

END OF MODULE M 1 -2 K. Conradin (1&3) M. Kropac (2&4) FOR FURTHER READINGS REFER TO M 1 -2 TUTORIAL Katharina Conradin, seecon international Dr. Johannes Heeb, International Ecological Engineering Society & seecon international Prof. Dr. Petter Jenssen, Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences Dr. Ken Gnanakan, ACTS Bangalore, India © 2006 Click here to go to the references part seecon International gmbh ACTS Agriculture -Crafts Trades - Studies BACK TO THE MAIN MENU

++ References (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) World Business for Sustainable Development. Water: Facts and Trends. See http: //www. wbcsd. ch/plugins/Doc. Search/details. asp? type=Doc. Det&Object. Id=MTYx. OTk (accessed 21. 09. 2005) SEI Stockholm Environment Institute (2005): Sustainable Pathways to attain the Millennium Development Goals. Assessing the Key Role of Water, Energy and Sanitation. With contribution from the Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, 2005. Can be downloaded from: http: //www. sei. se/ UN-Water Thematic Initiatives: Coping with water scarcity – a strategic issue and priority for system-wide action. ftp: //ftp. fao. org/aglw/docs/waterscarcity. pdf (accessed 26. 09. 2005) T. S. SUBRAMANIAN: Distress in the Delta. Frontline Magazine, Volume 20 - Issue 21, October 11 - 24, 2003. See http: //www. flonnet. com/fl 2021/stories/20031024002103300. htm (accessed 26. 09. 2005) UNESCO/World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2003): Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations World Water Development Report. WHO: Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. UNEP: Vital Water Graphics: http: //www. unep. org/vitalwater (accessed 26. 09. 2004) Johannson, B. & Sellberg, B. (2005): Groundwater under threat. Formas Publication (Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning). Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: http: //www. formas. se/docs/Bokhandel/PDF/Groundwaterunderthreat. pdf (accessed 27. 09. 2005) Malmer, A. (2005): Groundwater and deforestation – do we need the trees? In: Johannson, B. & Sellberg, B. (2005): Groundwater under threat. Formas Publication (Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning). Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: http: //www. formas. se/docs/Bokhandel/PDF/Groundwaterunderthreat. pdf (accessed 27. 09. 2005) KRAFFT, T. , WOLF, T. & AGGRAVAL, S. (2003): A new Urban Penalty? Environmental and Health Risks in Delhi. – In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 4: 20 -27. Falkenmark, M. , in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: http: //www. siwi. org/downloads/WWWSymp/Towards_Hydrosolidarity_web. pdf (accessed 27. 09. 2005) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: IPCC Second Assessment Synthesis of Scientific-Technical Information relevant to interpreting Article 2 of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. See: http: //www. ipcc. ch/pub/sarsyn. htm (accessed 21. 09. 2005) World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2005): Water for People, Water for Life. Executive Summary. Unesco, Berghahn. Available at: http: //unesdoc. unesco. org/images/001295/129556 e. pdf (Accessed 10. 2005) Falkenmark, M. , in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: http: //www. siwi. org/downloads/WWWSymp/Towards_Hydrosolidarity_web. pdf (accessed 27. 09. 2005)

++ References (14) Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: Aquifer. http: //search. eb. com/eb/article-9008129? query=aquifer&ct= (Accessed 11. 10. 2005) (15) Dr. Sven Jonasson (2005): Groundwater: Supply and protection. Unpublished Power-Point Presentation. Geo Logic AB / Dept. of Mathematical Sciences and Technology. The Norwegian University of Life Sciences. Ås, Sweden. (16) Shiklomanov, I. -A. Forthcoming. World Water Resources at the Beginning of the 21 st Century. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. In: UNESCO/World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2003): Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations World Water Development Report. (17) Malmer, A. (2005): Groundwater and deforestation – do we need the trees? In: Johannson, B. & Sellberg, B. (2005): Groundwater under threat. Formas Publication (Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning). Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: http: //www. formas. se/docs/Bokhandel/PDF/Groundwaterunderthreat. pdf (accessed 27. 09. 2005) (18) Meybeck, M. (2004): The Global Change of Continental Aquatic Systems: Dominant Impacts of Human Activities. ” Proceedings of the 2003 Stockholm Water Symposium. London: International Water Association Publishing. Quoted in: Falkenmark, M. , in co -operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: http: //www. siwi. org/downloads/WWW-Symp/Towards_Hydrosolidarity_web. pdf (accessed 27. 09. 2005) (19) Lundqvist, J. : How to Avert the Threatening Hydrocide. Proceedings of the 1998 Stockholm Water Symposium. Stockholm: Stockholm International Water Institute. Quoted in: Falkenmark, M. , in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: http: //www. siwi. org/downloads/WWW-Symp/Towards_Hydrosolidarity_web. pdf (accessed 27. 09. 2005) (20) Simonovic, S. P. 2002. “Global Water Dynamics: Issues for the 21 st Century. ” Proceedings of the 2001 Stockholm Water Symposium. London: International Water Association Publishing. Quoted in: Falkenmark, M. , in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: http: //www. siwi. org/downloads/WWW-Symp/Towards_Hydrosolidarity_web. pdf (accessed 27. 09. 2005) (21) Colburn, T. , D. Dumanoski, and J. P. Myers. (1997): Our Stolen Future: Are We Threatening Our Fertility, Intelligence, and Survival? New York: Penguin Books USA. Quoted in: Falkenmark, M. , in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: http: //www. siwi. org/downloads/WWW-Symp/Towards_Hydrosolidarity_web. pdf (accessed 27. 09. 2005) (22) BUWAL Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft (2005): http: //www. trinkwasser. ch/dt/html/bildergallerie/frameset. htm (accessed 28. 09. 2005) (23) Gleick, P. H. (1996): Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs. Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security. In: Water International, 21/1996. http: //www. pacinst. org/reports/basic_water_needs. pdf (accessed 28. 09. 2005) (24) UN Statistics Division: http: //millenniumindicators. un. or (accessed 19. 09. 2005) (25) Murray. C. J. L. & Lopez, A. D. (1996): Global Burden of disease.

++ References (26) Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: The Green Revolution. http: //search. eb. com/eb/article 10700? query=green%20 revolution&ct= (Accessed 10. 2005) (27) Leser, H. (Ed. ) (1997): Wörterbuch allgemeine Geographie. 13 th, fully revised edition, Mai 2005. München, Braunschweig (Germany). (28) Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: Salinisation of Soil. http: //search. eb. com/eb/article-25515? query=salinization&ct= (Accessed 12. 10. 2005) (29) Map prepared for the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) by the Centre for Environmental Research, University of Kassel, 2002. For the water stress calculation: data from Water. GAP Version 2. 1. D; Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000; Raskin et al. , 1997. For the megacities: UN, 2002. In: UNESCO/World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2003): Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations World Water Development Report. WHO: Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. (30) Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: Secondary Treatment. http: //search. eb. com/eb/article 72355? query=secondary%20 treatment&ct= (Accessed 15. 10. 2005) (31) Scottish Environment Protection Agency SEPA (2005): Groundwater Principles. Available at: http: //www. sepa. org. uk/groundwater/images/confined-unconfined-aquifer. gif (Accessed 11. 10. 2005) (32) Srinivasan, R K & Kozhisseri, D. (2005): Urban Water – Emergency. In: Down to Earth on Water, Ed. Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, India (33) CSE (Centre for Science and the Environment) (1999): The Citizen's Fifth Report New Delhi, India. In: UNESCO/World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2003): Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations World Water Development Report. WHO: Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report.

IMPROVED WATER SOURCE ++ Glossary: Access to an improved water source “Access to improved water sources refers to the percentage of population who use any of the following types of water supply for drinking: household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected dug well, protected spring, rainwater collection. Improved water sources do not include: unprotected well, unprotected spring, rivers or ponds, vendor-provided water, bottled water (due to limitations in the potential quantity, not quality, of the water), tanker truck water. Drinking water is defined as the water used for normal domestic purposes, including consumption and hygiene. Not all people that have 21 access to improve sources actually used them. Consequently, the primary indicator used to monitor progress in safe drinking water is the “use” of improved water sources. ”(24)

IMPROVED SANITATION FACILITIES ++ Glossary: Access to improved sanitation facilities “The definition of basic sanitation would encompass critical components of what sanitation services should aim for: privacy, dignity, cleanliness and a healthy environment. From a monitoring point of view, however, such characteristics are difficult to measure. Access to improved sanitation facilities refers to the percentage of the population with access to: facilities connected to a public sewer or a septic system, poor-flush latrines, simple pit or ventilated improved pit latrines. These kinds of latrines are likely to be adequate, provided that they are not public or shared while open pit latrine and bucket latrine are considered “unimproved” sanitation facilities. Not all people that have access to improved sanitation facilities actually used them. Consequently, the primary indicator used to monitor progress in sanitation is the “use” of improved basic sanitation. ” (24)

WATER SCARCITY ++ Glossary: Water Scarcity Water scarcity is defined by the UN as „the point at which the aggregate impact of all users impinges on the supply or quality of water under prevailing institutional arrangements to the extent that the demand by all sectors, including the environment, cannot be fully satisfied. ” (3)

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION ++ Glossary: Evapotranspiration “Liquid water is converted to water vapour by evapotranspiration as vegetation extracts water from the soil and emits it through stoma (pores in the leave surface) on the leaves and by evaporation directly from the surface of the soil when water from below is diffused upward. Evaporation occurs at the surface of water bodies at a rate inversely proportional to the relative humidity just above the surface. Evaporation is rapid in dry air but much slower when the lowest levels of the atmosphere almost saturated. Evaporation from soil is dependent on the rate at which moisture is supplied by capillary suction within the soil, while evapotranspiration is dependent on the water available to plants within the root zone and whether or not the stoma are open on the leaf surfaces. Water that evaporates and evapotranspires into the atmosphere is often transported long distances over the Earth before it is precipitated again. ” (25)

MEGACITIES ++ Glossary: Megacities Megacity is a general term for large cities together with their suburbs or recognized metropolitan areas with a total population of exceeding eight million. Depending on the respective author, the population threshold lies at five, ten or 12 million. Whereas the term city may denote importance, population size or legal status of a place, the term megacity concentrates on size only. Examples for megacities include for instance Mexico-City, Karachi, Tokyo, Mumbai and others.

EUTROPHICATION ++ Glossary: Eutrophication “Eutrophication is gradual increase in the concentration of phosphorus, nitrogen, and other plant nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem such as a lake, pond, a river etc. The productivity or fertility of such an ecosystem increases as the amount of organic material that can be broken down into nutrients increases. This material enters the ecosystem primarily by runoff from land that carries debris and products of the reproduction and death of terrestrial organisms, as well as artificial or organic fertiliser. Blooms, or great concentrations of algae and microscopic organisms, often develop on the surface, preventing the light penetration and oxygen absorption necessary for underwater life. In extreme cases, the aquatic life in this waterbody can perish due to a lack of oxygen. Some species are also not adapted to such high concentration of nutrients and decay due to this. ” (30)

++ Glossary: Salinisation SALINISATION Salinisation is a general term for all processes which accumulate salts in soil. It takes place mainly in arid climates. Due to a high evaporation and insufficient rainfall, water (from rainfall or irrigation) does not seep downwards, but groundwater rather ascents through capillaries. The dissolved salts are precipitated and accumulate at the soil surface. “The problem is most common in irrigation agriculture, in which water is brought in to supply the needs of crops in an area with insufficient rainfall. There, the salinisation most commonly results from inadequate drainage of the irrigated land; because the water cannot flow freely, it evaporates, and the salts dissolved in the water are left on the surface of the soil. Even though the water does not contain a large concentration of dissolved salts, the accumulation over the years can be significant enough to make the soil unsuitable for crop production. Effective drainage can solve the problem; in many cases, drainage canals must be constructed and drainage tiles must be laid beneath the surface of the soil, which might not be possible for large-scale irrigated areas. Drainage also requires the availability of an excess of water to flush the salts from the surface soil. In certain heavy soils with poor drainage, this problem can be quite severe; for example, large areas of formerly irrigated land in the Indus basin, in the Tigris–Euphrates region, in the Nile Basin, and in the western United States have been seriously damaged by salinisation. ” (28)

GREEN REVOLUTION ++ Glossary: Green Revolution “The introduction into developing countries of new strains of wheat and rice was a major aspect of what became known as the Green Revolution. Given adequate water and ample amounts of the required chemical fertilizers and pesticides, these varieties have resulted in significantly higher yields. Poorer farmers, however, often have not been able to provide the required growing conditions and therefore have obtained even lower yields with “improved” grains than they had gotten with the older strains that were better adapted to local conditions and that had some resistance to pests and diseases. Where chemicals are used, concern has been voiced about their cost—since they generally must be imported—and about their potentially harmful effects on the environment. ” (26)

AQUIFER ++ Glossary: Aquifer In hydrology, an aquifer is a rock layer that contains water and releases it in appreciable amounts. The rock contains water-filled pore spaces, and, when the spaces are connected, the water is able to flow through the matrix of the rock. An aquifer also may be called a waterbearing stratum, lens, or zone. A confined aquifer is a water-bearing stratum that is confined or overlain by a rock layer that does not transmit water in any appreciable amount or that is impermeable. There probably are few truly confined aquifers, because tests have shown that the confining strata, or layers, although they do not readily transmit water, over a period of time contribute large quantities of water by slow leakage to supplement production from the principal aquifer. A groundwater aquifer is said to be unconfined when its upper surface (water table) is open to the atmosphere through permeable material. As opposed to a confined aquifer, the water table in an unconfined aquifer system has no overlying impervious rock layer to separate it from the atmosphere (27, 28).

++ Abbreviations MDG PCB UN UNEP UNESCO WBCSD WHO WWAP Millennium Development Goals Polychlorinated Biphenyls (Chemical Substance) United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Business Council for Sustainable Development World Health Organization UN World Water Assessment Programme