Data Mining Concepts and Techniques 3 rd ed

Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (3 rd ed. ) — Chapter 1 — Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign & Simon Fraser University © 2010 Han, Kamber & Pei. All rights reserved. 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 1

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Data and Information Systems (DAIS: ) Course Structures at CS/UIUC n Coverage: Database, data mining, text information systems, Web and bioinformatics n Data mining n Intro. to data warehousing and mining (CS 412: Han—Fall) n Data mining: Principles and algorithms (CS 512: Han—Spring) n Seminar: Advanced Topics in Data mining (CS 591 Han—Fall and Spring. 1 credit unit) n n Independent Study: only if you seriously plan to do your Ph. D. /M. S. on data mining and try to demonstrate your ability Database Systems: n n n Introd. to database systems (CS 411: Kevin Chang Fall and Spring) Advanced database systems (CS 511: Kevin Chang Fall) Text information systems n n Text information system (CS 410 Cheng. Xiang Zhai: Spring) Bioinformatics n n n Introduction to Bio. Informatics (Saurabh Sinha) CS 591 Seminar on Bioinformatics (Sinha: 1 credit unit) Yahoo!-DAIS seminar (CS 591 DAIS—Fall and Spring. 1 credit unit) 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 3

CS 412 Coverage (Chapters 1 -7 of the Text. Book) n n The textbook will be covered in two courses at CS, UIUC n CS 412: Introduction to data warehousing and data mining (Fall) n CS 512: Data mining: Principles and algorithms (Spring) CS 412 Coverage (BK 2: 2 nd Ed. ) n Introduction n Data Preprocessing n Data Warehouse and OLAP Technology: An Introduction n Advanced Data Cube Technology and Data Generalization n Mining Frequent Patterns, Association and Correlations n Classification and Prediction n Cluster Analysis 17 March 2018 n CS 412 Coverage (BK 3: 3 rd ed. ) n Introduction n Getting to Know Your Data n Data Preprocessing n Data Warehouse and OLAP Technology: An Introduction n Advanced Data Cube Technology n Mining Frequent Patterns & Association: Basic Concepts n Mining Frequent Patterns & Association: Advanced Methods n Classification: Basic Concepts n Classification: Advanced Methods n Cluster Analysis: Basic Concepts n Cluster Analysis: Advanced Methods n Outlier Analysis Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 4

CS 512 Coverage (Chapters 8 -11 of This Book) n Mining data streams, time-series, and sequence data n Mining graphs, and mining social and information networks n Mining object, spatial, multimedia, text and Web data n n Spatial and spatiotemporal data mining n Multimedia data mining n Text mining n n Mining complex data objects Web mining Applications and trends of data mining n n Visual data mining n n Mining business & biological data Data mining and society: Privacy-preserving data mining Additional (often current) themes could be added to the course 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 5

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CS 412: Lecture, Class Schedule, etc. n Class Homepage: https: //agora. cs. illinois. edu/display/cs 412 fa 10/Home n Agora outline n Course Information n Course Schedule (Fall_2010) n Lecture media (Fall_2010) n Homeworks and Assignments (Fall 2010) n News. Group n Resources and Reading Lists n Staff n Project n n 17 March 2018 Comments and Suggestions—Textbook, Slides, and Class Presentation Class-Related Questions and Answers Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 7

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 8

Why Data Mining? n The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes n Data collection and data availability n Automated data collection tools, database systems, Web, computerized society n Major sources of abundant data n Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, … n Science: Remote sensing, bioinformatics, scientific simulation, … n Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, You. Tube n We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge! n “Necessity is the mother of invention”—Data mining—Automated analysis of massive data sets 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 9

Evolution of Sciences n Before 1600, empirical science n 1600 -1950 s, theoretical science n n 1950 s-1990 s, computational science n n n Each discipline has grown a theoretical component. Theoretical models often motivate experiments and generalize our understanding. Over the last 50 years, most disciplines have grown a third, computational branch (e. g. empirical, theoretical, and computational ecology, or physics, or linguistics. ) Computational Science traditionally meant simulation. It grew out of our inability to find closed-form solutions for complex mathematical models. 1990 -now, data science n The flood of data from new scientific instruments and simulations n The ability to economically store and manage petabytes of data online n The Internet and computing Grid that makes all these archives universally accessible n n Scientific info. management, acquisition, organization, query, and visualization tasks scale almost linearly with data volumes. Data mining is a major new challenge! Jim Gray and Alex Szalay, The World Wide Telescope: An Archetype for Online Science , Comm. ACM, 45(11): 50 -54, Nov. 2002 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 10

Evolution of Database Technology n 1960 s: n n 1970 s: n n Data collection, database creation, IMS and network DBMS Relational data model, relational DBMS implementation 1980 s: n n n RDBMS, advanced data models (extended-relational, OO, deductive, etc. ) Application-oriented DBMS (spatial, scientific, engineering, etc. ) 1990 s: n n Data mining, data warehousing, multimedia databases, and Web databases 2000 s n Stream data management and mining n Data mining and its applications n Web technology (XML, data integration) and global information systems 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 11

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 12

What Is Data Mining? n Data mining (knowledge discovery from data) n Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously unknown and potentially useful) patterns or knowledge from huge amount of data n n Alternative names n n Data mining: a misnomer? Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge extraction, data/pattern analysis, data archeology, data dredging, information harvesting, business intelligence, etc. Watch out: Is everything “data mining”? n Simple search and query processing n (Deductive) expert systems 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 13

Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process n n This is a view from typical database systems and data Pattern Evaluation warehousing communities Data mining plays an essential role in the knowledge discovery Data Mining process Task-relevant Data Selection Data Warehouse Data Cleaning Data Integration Databases 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 14

Example: A Web Mining Framework n Web mining usually involves n Data cleaning n Data integration from multiple sources n Warehousing the data n Data cube construction n Data selection for data mining n Data mining n Presentation of the mining results n 17 March 2018 Patterns and knowledge to be used or stored into knowledge-base Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 15

Data Mining in Business Intelligence Increasing potential to support business decisions Decision Making Data Presentation Visualization Techniques End User Business Analyst Data Mining Information Discovery Data Analyst Data Exploration Statistical Summary, Querying, and Reporting Data Preprocessing/Integration, Data Warehouses Data Sources Paper, Files, Web documents, Scientific experiments, Database Systems 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques DBA 16

Example: Mining vs. Data Exploration n Business intelligence view n n n Warehouse, data cube, reporting but not much mining Business objects vs. data mining tools Supply chain example: tools Data presentation Exploration 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 17

KDD Process: A Typical View from ML and Statistics Input Data Pre. Processing Data integration Normalization Feature selection Dimension reduction n Data Mining Pattern discovery Association & correlation Classification Clustering Outlier analysis ………… Post. Processing Pattern evaluation selection interpretation visualization This is a view from typical machine learning and statistics communities 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 18

Example: Medical Data Mining n n Health care & medical data mining – often adopted such a view in statistics and machine learning Preprocessing of the data (including feature extraction and dimension reduction) n Classification or/and clustering processes n Post-processing for presentation 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 20

Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n n Data to be mined n Database data (extended-relational, object-oriented, heterogeneous, legacy), data warehouse, transactional data, stream, spatiotemporal, time-series, sequence, text and web, multi-media, graphs & social and information networks Knowledge to be mined (or: Data mining functions) n Characterization, discrimination, association, classification, clustering, trend/deviation, outlier analysis, etc. n Descriptive vs. predictive data mining n Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels Techniques utilized n Data-intensive, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning, statistics, pattern recognition, visualization, high-performance, etc. Applications adapted n Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data mining, stock market analysis, text mining, Web mining, etc. 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 21

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 22

Data Mining: On What Kinds of Data? n Database-oriented data sets and applications n n Relational database, data warehouse, transactional database Advanced data sets and advanced applications n Data streams and sensor data n Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data (incl. bio-sequences) n Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data n Object-relational databases n Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases n Spatial data and spatiotemporal data n Multimedia database n Text databases n The World-Wide Web 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 23

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 24

Data Mining Function: (1) Generalization n Information integration and data warehouse construction n n Data cube technology n n n Data cleaning, transformation, integration, and multidimensional data model Scalable methods for computing (i. e. , materializing) multidimensional aggregates OLAP (online analytical processing) Multidimensional concept description: Characterization and discrimination n 17 March 2018 Generalize, summarize, and contrast data characteristics, e. g. , dry vs. wet region Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 25

Data Mining Function: (2) Association and Correlation Analysis n Frequent patterns (or frequent itemsets) n n What items are frequently purchased together in your Walmart? Association, correlation vs. causality n A typical association rule n n Diaper Beer [0. 5%, 75%] (support, confidence) Are strongly associated items also strongly correlated? How to mine such patterns and rules efficiently in large datasets? How to use such patterns for classification, clustering, and other applications? 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 26

Data Mining Function: (3) Classification n Classification and label prediction n Construct models (functions) based on some training examples n Describe and distinguish classes or concepts for future prediction n Predict some unknown class labels Typical methods n n E. g. , classify countries based on (climate), or classify cars based on (gas mileage) Decision trees, naïve Bayesian classification, support vector machines, neural networks, rule-based classification, pattern-based classification, logistic regression, … Typical applications: n 17 March 2018 Credit card fraud detection, direct marketing, classifying stars, diseases, web-pages, … Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 27

Data Mining Function: (4) Cluster Analysis n n Unsupervised learning (i. e. , Class label is unknown) Group data to form new categories (i. e. , clusters), e. g. , cluster houses to find distribution patterns Principle: Maximizing intra-class similarity & minimizing interclass similarity Many methods and applications 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 28

Data Mining Function: (5) Outlier Analysis n Outlier analysis n n Outlier: A data object that does not comply with the general behavior of the data Noise or exception? ― One person’s garbage could be another person’s treasure n Methods: by product of clustering or regression analysis, … n Useful in fraud detection, rare events analysis 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 29

Time and Ordering: Sequential Pattern, Trend and Evolution Analysis n n Sequence, trend and evolution analysis n Trend, time-series, and deviation analysis: e. g. , regression and value prediction n Sequential pattern mining n e. g. , first buy digital camera, then buy large SD memory cards n Periodicity analysis n Motifs and biological sequence analysis n Approximate and consecutive motifs n Similarity-based analysis Mining data streams n Ordered, time-varying, potentially infinite, data streams 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 30

Structure and Network Analysis n n n Graph mining n Finding frequent subgraphs (e. g. , chemical compounds), trees (XML), substructures (web fragments) Information network analysis n Social networks: actors (objects, nodes) and relationships (edges) n e. g. , author networks in CS, terrorist networks n Multiple heterogeneous networks n A person could be multiple information networks: friends, family, classmates, … n Links carry a lot of semantic information: Link mining Web mining n Web is a big information network: from Page. Rank to Google n Analysis of Web information networks n Web community discovery, opinion mining, usage mining, … 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 31

Evaluation of Knowledge n Are all mined knowledge interesting? n n Some may fit only certain dimension space (time, location, …) n n One can mine tremendous amount of “patterns” and knowledge Some may not be representative, may be transient, … Evaluation of mined knowledge → directly mine only interesting knowledge? n Descriptive vs. predictive n Coverage n Typicality vs. novelty n Accuracy n Timeliness n … 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 32

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 33

Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines Machine Learning Applications Algorithm 17 March 2018 Pattern Recognition Data Mining Database Technology Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques Statistics Visualization High-Performance Computing 34

Why Confluence of Multiple Disciplines? n Tremendous amount of data n n High-dimensionality of data n n Micro-array may have tens of thousands of dimensions High complexity of data n n n n Algorithms must be highly scalable to handle such as tera-bytes of data Data streams and sensor data Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases Spatial, spatiotemporal, multimedia, text and Web data Software programs, scientific simulations New and sophisticated applications 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 35

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 36

Applications of Data Mining n Web page analysis: from web page classification, clustering to Page. Rank & HITS algorithms n Collaborative analysis & recommender systems n Basket data analysis to targeted marketing n n n Biological and medical data analysis: classification, cluster analysis (microarray data analysis), biological sequence analysis, biological network analysis Data mining and software engineering (e. g. , IEEE Computer, Aug. 2009 issue) From major dedicated data mining systems/tools (e. g. , SAS, MS SQLServer Analysis Manager, Oracle Data Mining Tools) to invisible data mining 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 37

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 38

Major Issues in Data Mining (1) n Mining Methodology n n Mining knowledge in multi-dimensional space n Data mining: An interdisciplinary effort n Boosting the power of discovery in a networked environment n Handling noise, uncertainty, and incompleteness of data n n Mining various and new kinds of knowledge Pattern evaluation and pattern- or constraint-guided mining User Interaction n Interactive mining n Incorporation of background knowledge n Presentation and visualization of data mining results 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39

Major Issues in Data Mining (2) n Efficiency and Scalability n n n Efficiency and scalability of data mining algorithms Parallel, distributed, stream, and incremental mining methods Diversity of data types n n n Handling complex types of data Mining dynamic, networked, and global data repositories Data mining and society n Social impacts of data mining n Privacy-preserving data mining n Invisible data mining 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 40

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 41

A Brief History of Data Mining Society n 1989 IJCAI Workshop on Knowledge Discovery in Databases n n 1991 -1994 Workshops on Knowledge Discovery in Databases n n Knowledge Discovery in Databases (G. Piatetsky-Shapiro and W. Frawley, 1991) Advances in Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (U. Fayyad, G. Piatetsky-Shapiro, P. Smyth, and R. Uthurusamy, 1996) 1995 -1998 International Conferences on Knowledge Discovery in Databases and Data Mining (KDD’ 95 -98) n Journal of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery (1997) n ACM SIGKDD conferences since 1998 and SIGKDD Explorations n More conferences on data mining n n PAKDD (1997), PKDD (1997), SIAM-Data Mining (2001), (IEEE) ICDM (2001), etc. ACM Transactions on KDD starting in 2007 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 42

Conferences and Journals on Data Mining n KDD Conferences n ACM SIGKDD Int. Conf. on Knowledge Discovery in Databases and Data Mining (KDD) n SIAM Data Mining Conf. (SDM) n (IEEE) Int. Conf. on Data Mining (ICDM) n European Conf. on Machine Learning and Principles and practices of Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (ECML-PKDD) n Pacific-Asia Conf. on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (PAKDD) n Int. Conf. on Web Search and Data Mining (WSDM) 17 March 2018 n Other related conferences n n DB conferences: ACM SIGMOD, VLDB, ICDE, EDBT, ICDT, … Web and IR conferences: WWW, SIGIR, WSDM n n n ML conferences: ICML, NIPS PR conferences: CVPR, Journals n n Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery (DAMI or DMKD) IEEE Trans. On Knowledge and Data Eng. (TKDE) n KDD Explorations n ACM Trans. on KDD Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 43

Where to Find References? DBLP, Cite. Seer, Google n Data mining and KDD (SIGKDD: CDROM) n n n Database systems (SIGMOD: ACM SIGMOD Anthology—CD ROM) n n n Conferences: SIGIR, WWW, CIKM, etc. Journals: WWW: Internet and Web Information Systems, Statistics n n n Conferences: Machine learning (ML), AAAI, IJCAI, COLT (Learning Theory), CVPR, NIPS, etc. Journals: Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence, Knowledge and Information Systems, IEEE -PAMI, etc. Web and IR n n Conferences: ACM-SIGMOD, ACM-PODS, VLDB, IEEE-ICDE, EDBT, ICDT, DASFAA Journals: IEEE-TKDE, ACM-TODS/TOIS, JIIS, J. ACM, VLDB J. , Info. Sys. , etc. AI & Machine Learning n n Conferences: ACM-SIGKDD, IEEE-ICDM, SIAM-DM, PKDD, PAKDD, etc. Journal: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, KDD Explorations, ACM TKDD Conferences: Joint Stat. Meeting, etc. Journals: Annals of statistics, etc. Visualization n n 17 March 2018 Conference proceedings: CHI, ACM-SIGGraph, etc. Journals: IEEE Trans. visualization and computer graphics, etc. Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 44

Recommended Reference Books n S. Chakrabarti. Mining the Web: Statistical Analysis of Hypertex and Semi-Structured Data. Morgan Kaufmann, 2002 n R. O. Duda, P. E. Hart, and D. G. Stork, Pattern Classification, 2 ed. , Wiley-Interscience, 2000 n T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley & Sons, 2003 n U. M. Fayyad, G. Piatetsky-Shapiro, P. Smyth, and R. Uthurusamy. Advances in Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining. AAAI/MIT Press, 1996 n U. Fayyad, G. Grinstein, and A. Wierse, Information Visualization in Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2001 n J. Han and M. Kamber. Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques. Morgan Kaufmann, 2 nd ed. , 2006 (3 ed. 2011) n D. J. Hand, H. Mannila, and P. Smyth, Principles of Data Mining, MIT Press, 2001 n T. Hastie, R. Tibshirani, and J. Friedman, The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction, 2 nd ed. , Springer-Verlag, 2009 n B. Liu, Web Data Mining, Springer 2006. n T. M. Mitchell, Machine Learning, Mc. Graw Hill, 1997 n G. Piatetsky-Shapiro and W. J. Frawley. Knowledge Discovery in Databases. AAAI/MIT Press, 1991 n P. -N. Tan, M. Steinbach and V. Kumar, Introduction to Data Mining, Wiley, 2005 n S. M. Weiss and N. Indurkhya, Predictive Data Mining, Morgan Kaufmann, 1998 n I. H. Witten and E. Frank, Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques with Java Implementations, Morgan Kaufmann, 2 nd ed. 2005 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 45

Chapter 1. Introduction n Why Data Mining? n What Is Data Mining? n A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining n What Kind of Data Can Be Mined? n What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? n What Technology Are Used? n What Kind of Applications Are Targeted? n Major Issues in Data Mining n A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society n Summary 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 46

Summary n n n Data mining: Discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from massive amount of data A natural evolution of database technology, in great demand, with wide applications A KDD process includes data cleaning, data integration, data selection, transformation, data mining, pattern evaluation, and knowledge presentation Mining can be performed in a variety of data Data mining functionalities: characterization, discrimination, association, classification, clustering, outlier and trend analysis, etc. n Data mining technologies and applications n Major issues in data mining 17 March 2018 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 47

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