Cross-Cultural Management 西安电子科技大学 杜 荣
Chapter 1 Meanings and Dimensions of Culture Outline • Chap 1 -1 Cross-cultural management • Chap 1 -2 Globalization • Chap 1 -3 Definitions of culture • Chap 1 -4 Nature of culture • Chap 1 -5 Cultural values • Chap 1 -6 Dimensions of culture • Chap 1 -7 Attitudinal Dimensions of Culture • Chap 1 -8 Trompenaars’ s Cultural Dimensions 2 Cross-Cultural Management
Chap 1 -1 Cross-cultural management 3 Cross-Cultural Management
What is Cross-Cultural Management? CCM is a fairly new field that is based on theories and research from: • Cross Cultural Psychology • International Business • Organizational Behaviour • Human Resources • Anthropology 4 Cross-Cultural Management
Goals for Cross-Cultural Management Cross Cultural Management seeks to • understand how national cultures affect management practices • identify the similarities and differences across cultures in various management practices and organizational contexts • increase effectiveness in global management 5 Cross-Cultural Management
Chap 1 -2 Globalization 6 Cross-Cultural Management
Globalization Like it or not, globalization is here…to stay. • Most large companies have some kind of business relations with customers, companies, employees or various stake-holders in other countries…and cultures. (Global corporations) • Many employees and managers deal with people from other cultures on a constant basis • Most of us have a close experience with only one or two cultures…=> 7 Cross-Cultural Management
Globalization • We do not understand people from other cultures as readily and intuitively as people from our own culture => • Cross cultural management helps organization members to gain better understanding of other cultures, of their culture and of the consequences of people from different cultures working together 8 Cross-Cultural Management
Chap 1 -3 Definitions of culture 9 Cross-Cultural Management
Culture Definition: acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior. Culture forms values, creates attitude, influences behavior. 10 Cross-Cultural Management
Chap 1 -4 Nature of culture 11 Cross-Cultural Management
Culture Characteristics of culture include: • Learned • Shared • Transgenerational • Symbolic • Patterned • Adaptive 12 Cross-Cultural Management
Cultural diversity (P 4: Culture and types of handshake) • Cultural values (P 5: Priorities of cultural values: US, Japan) (P 5: examples where culture can affect management approaches) Depict cultural diversity through concentric circles. 13 Cross-Cultural Management
Chap 1 -5 Cultural values 14 Cross-Cultural Management
Priorities of Cultural Values United States 1. Freedom 2. Independence 3. Self-reliance 4. Equality 5. Individualism 6. Competition 7. Efficiency 8. Time 9. Directness 10. Openness 15 Japan 1. Belonging 2. Group harmony 3. Collectiveness 4. Age/seniority 5. Group consensus 6. Cooperation 7. Quality 8. Patience 9. Indirectness 10. Go-between Cross-Cultural Management Arab Countries 1. Family security 2. Family harmony 3. Parental guidance 4. Age 5. Authority 6. Compromise 7. Devotion 8. Patience 9. Indirectness 10. Hospitality
Management Approaches Affected by Cultural Diversity Centralized vs. Decentralized decision making Cultural Diversity Informal vs. formal procedures Safety vs. risk Individual vs. group rewards Sort-term vs. long-term horizons 16 Cross-Cultural Management High vs. low organizational loyalty Cooperation vs. competition Stability vs. innovation
Summary of what we learned last week • Introduction to the course of cross-cultural management and our international teaching team • Goals for Cross-cultural management • Nature of culture 17 Cross-Cultural Management
We will learn today • • 18 A model of culture: concentric circles Comparing culture as a normal distribution Values in culture Hofstede’s cultural dimensions Cross-Cultural Management
A model of culture: concentric circles Explicit artifacts and products of the society Norms and values that guide the society Implicit, basic assumptions that guide people’s behavior Outer layer: observable, e. g. language, food, buildings, art. Middle layer: helps people understand how they should behave. Inner layer: intangible, helpful for problemsolving and well interactions with other people. 19 Cross-Cultural Management
Comparing Cultures as Overlapping Normal Distribution Chinese Culture ? ? 20 U. S. Culture Cross-Cultural Management
Stereotyping from the Cultural Extremes: Brugha and Du’s research How Americans see the Chinese • in community • avoid confrontation (keep in harmony) • respect for authorities and seniors How Chinese see Americans • individualism • face confrontation (arguments and debates) • respect for achievements Chinese Culture 21 Cross-Cultural Management U. S. Culture
Values in Culture Values: basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and wrong, good and bad, important and unimportant. • Value differences and similarities across cultures: P 10: “common personal values” U. S. Values and possible alternatives • Values in transition: work values change over time. 22 Cross-Cultural Management
Dominant Western Values in Workforce Career Stage Entered the Workforce Approximate Current Age 1. Protestant Work Ethic Mid-1940 s to Late 1950 s 50 to 65 Hard working; loyal to firm; conservative 2. Existential 1960 s to Mid-1970 s 35 to 50 Nonconforming; seeks autonomy; loyal to self 3. Pragmatic Mid-1970 s to Mid-1980 s 35 to 35 Ambitious, hard worker; loyal to career 4. Generation X Mid-1980 s through 1990 s Under 25 Flexible, values leisure; loyal to relationships 23 Cross-Cultural Management Dominant Work Values
Chap 1 -6 Dimensions of culture 24 Cross-Cultural Management
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions • Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede found there are four dimensions of culture. • Hofstede’s initial data: questionnaire surveys with over 116000 respondents from over 70 different countries who worked in the local subsidiaries of IBM. • The fifth dimension was added later. • Criticized because of its focus on just one company. • Popular in the research field of cross-cultural management. 25 Cross-Cultural Management
u u Uncertainty Avoidance u Individualism u Masculinity u Hofstede’s Power Distance Long-Term Orientation Five Cultural Dimensions 26 Cross-Cultural Management
• Power Distance: the extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept that power is distributed unequally. u. Low: people treated as equals despite social status u. High: people accept authority relations • Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these. u. Low: prefer few formal rules u. High: want clear behavioral guides 27 Cross-Cultural Management
• Individualism/collectivism: the tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only (belong to groups or collectives and to look after each other in exchange for loyalty). u. Low: group behavior important u. High: individual behavior important A bipolar continuum Individualism 28 Cross-Cultural Management Collectivism
• Masculinity/femininity: a situation in which the dominant values in society are success, money, and things (caring for others and the quality of life). u. Low: cooperation; friendly atmosphere; employment security; low stress; warm interpersonal relationships. u. High: competition; challenge; recognition; wealth; advancement; high stress; tight control. A continuum Masculinity 29 Femininity Cross-Cultural Management
• Long–term orientation: value placed on persistence, status, thrift u. Low: respect for tradition, personal stability, focused on the past u. High: perseverance, thrift, focused on the future This dimension was added to depict the influence of Confucianism in Asia. This dimension is similar to “Adjusting” proposed by Brugha and Du. 30 Cross-Cultural Management
Examples of Cultural Dimensions Country Power Distance Individualism* Masculinity** Uncertainty Avoidance Long-term Orientation*** China High Low Moderate High France High Moderate High Low Germany Low High Moderate Hong Kong High Low High Indonesia High Low Moderate Low Japan Moderate High Moderate Netherlands Low High Low Moderate Russia High Moderate Low High Low United States Low High Low West Africa High Low Moderate Low * A low score is synonymous with collectivism ** A low score is synonymous with masculinity *** A low score is synonymous with a short-term orientation
Additional Frameworks Two additional perspectives, of social/cross-cultural psychologists merit attention: Markus & Kitayama: Independent & Interdependent Construals Triandis: Individualism-Collectivism 32 Cross-Cultural Management
Vertical & Horizontal Individualism & Collectivism Harry Triandis: Combination of Individualism vs. collectivism and power & achievement vs. benevolence & universalism • VI: achievement + individualism (USA) • HI: universalism + individualism (Sweden) • VC: power + collectivism (India) • HC: benevolence + collectivism (Israel; rare) 33 Cross-Cultural Management
Schwartz’s Values • • • 34 Universalism Benevolence Conformity & tradition Security Power Achievement Hedonism Stimulation Self Direction Cross-Cultural Management
Schwartz’s Value Map 35 Cross-Cultural Management
Empirical test of the Theory • 75, 000 + respondents, varied samples in 68 countries • Instrument lists 57 abstract value items • “How important is each item as a guiding principle in your life? ” 36 Cross-Cultural Management
Tasks in the next session: u. Students’ talks and presentations u. Discussion in groups: how to learn Cross-cultural management? Assignment after class: Read a paper on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. 37 Cross-Cultural Management
Preview • Integrating Hofstede’s cultural dimensions • Attitudinal dimensions of culture • Trompenaars’s cultural dimensions • Integrating culture and management 38 Cross-Cultural Management
Chap 1 -7 Attitudinal Dimensions of Culture Work Value and Attitude Similarities • Research has revealed many similarities in both work values and attitudes • Ronen and Kraut – Smallest space analysis (SSA) - maps the relationship among countries by showing the distance between each on various cultural dimensions – Can identify country clusters • Ronen and Shenkar – Examined variables in four categories » Importance of work goals » Need deficiency, fulfillment, and job satisfaction » Managerial and organizational variables » Work role and interpersonal orientation 39 Cross-Cultural Management
A Synthesis of Country Cultures 40 Cross-Cultural Management
GLOBE Project • Multi-country study and evaluation of cultural attributes and leadership behavior • Are transformational characteristics of leadership universally endorsed? • 170 country co-investigators • 65 different cultures • 17, 500 middle managers 800 organisations 41 Cross-Cultural Management
GLOBE Project • What traits are universally viewed as impediments to leadership effectiveness? • Based on beliefs that – Certain attributes that distinguish one culture from others can be used to predict the most suitable, effective and acceptable organizational and leader practices within that culture – Societal culture has direct impact on organizational culture – Leader acceptance stems from tying leader attributes and behaviors to subordinate norms 42 Cross-Cultural Management
GLOBE Cultural Variable Results Variable Highest Ranking Medium Ranking Assertiveness Spain, U. S. Egypt, Ireland Future orientation Denmark, Canada Slovenia, Egypt Russia, Argentina Gender differentiation South Korea, Egypt Sweden Denmark Uncertainty avoidance Austria, Denmark Israel, U. S. Power distance Russia, Spain England, France Demark, Netherlands Collectivism/Societal Denmark, Singapore Hong Kong, U. S. Greece, Hungary In-group collectivism Egypt, China England, France Denmark, Netherlands Performance orientation U. S. , Taiwan Humane orientation Indonesia, Egypt Italy, Brazil Lowest Ranking Sweden, New Zealand Russia, Hungary Sweden, Israel Russia, Argentina Hong Kong, Sweden Germany, Spain
Chap 1 -8 Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions • Research produced five cultural dimensions that are based on relationship orientations and attitudes toward both time and the environment • Universalism vs. Particularism – Universalism - belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere in the world without modification • Focus on formal rules and rely on business contacts – Particularism - belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices should be applied and something cannot be done the same everywhere • Focus on relationships, working things out to suit the parties 44 Cross-Cultural Management
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (cont. ) • Individualism vs. Communitarianism – Individualism - people regard themselves as individuals • Rely on individuals to make decisions – Communitarianism - people regard themselves as part of a group • Seek consultation and mutual consent before making decisions • Neutral vs. Emotional – Neutral - culture in which emotions are held in check • People try not to show their feelings – Emotional - culture in which emotions are expressed openly and naturally • People smile, talk loudly, greet each other with enthusiasm 45 Cross-Cultural Management
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (cont. ) • Specific vs. Diffuse – Specific - culture in which individuals have a large public space they readily share with others and a small private space they guard closely and share with only close friends and associates • People often are open and extroverted • Work and private life are separate – Diffuse - culture in which both public and private space are similar in size and individuals guard their public space carefully, because entry into public space affords entry into private space as well • People often appear indirect and introverted, and work and private life often are closely linked 46 Cross-Cultural Management
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (cont. ) • Achievement vs. Ascription – Achievement - culture in which people are accorded status based on how well they perform their functions – Ascription - culture in which status is attributed based on who or what a person is • For example, status may be accorded on the basis of age, gender, or social connections • Time – Sequential approach to time - people do one thing at a time, keep appointments strictly, follow plans to the letter – Synchronous approach - people do more than one thing at a time, appointments are approximate 47 Cross-Cultural Management
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (cont. ) • Environment – Inner-directed • People believe in controlling environmental outcomes – Outer-directed • People believe in allowing things to take their natural course • Cultural Patterns or Clusters – Defined groups of countries that are similar to each other in terms of the five dimensions and the orientations toward time and the environment 48 Cross-Cultural Management
Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups Anglo cluster Relationship United States Individualism United Kingdom x x x Communitarianism Specific relationship Diffuse relationship Universalism Particularism Neutral relationship x Emotional relationship x Achievement x Ascription Cross-Cultural Management x 49
Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups Asian cluster Relationship Japan China Indonesia Hong Kong Singapore Individualism Communitarianism x x x x x Particularism x x x Neutral relationship x x x x Specific relationship Diffuse relationship Universalism Emotional relationship x Achievement Ascription x x Cross-Cultural Management 50
Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups Latin American cluster Relationship Argentina Individualism Mexico Venezuela Brazil x x x x Particularism x x Neutral relationship x x x Communitarianism Specific relationship Diffuse relationship Universalism Emotional relationship Achievement Ascription x x x Cross-Cultural Management x x 51
Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups Latin-European cluster Relationship France Belgium Individualism Spain Italy x Communitarianism x x Specific relationship x x Diffuse relationship Universalism x x x Particularism x Neutral relationship x Emotional relationship x x Achievement Ascription x x x Cross-Cultural Management x x 52
Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups Germanic cluster Relationship Austria Germany Switzerland Czechoslovakia Individualism x Communitarianism Specific relationship x Diffuse relationship Universalism x x x x x Particularism Neutral relationship x Emotional relationship Achievement Ascription x x x Cross-Cultural Management x x 53
Culture Maps - Frameworks Edward T. Hall Geert Hofstede Culture Elements • • • time space things friendships agreements & interpersonal behavior Value Patterns • • • power risk individualism masculinity long term orientation & management theories practice Trompenaars Value Patterns • universalism– particularism • collectivism– individualism • affective–neutral relationships • specificity–diffuseness • achievement– ascription • time orientation • Internal–external control & Int’l. business practice Cross-Cultural Management Kluckhohn & Strodbeck Variations in Value Orientations • relation to nature • orientation to time • belief about human nature • mode of human activity • relationships • space & Int’l. business practice 54
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