Cross-Cultural Differences How do cultures vary Lecture 3

Cross-Cultural Differences: How do cultures vary? Lecture 3

Sophisticated Stereotypes about Cross-Cultural Differences: Cultural Dimensions Values Assumptions Beliefs Norms Practices Cognitive processes

Cultural Dimensions Values ◦ Hofstede (1980): Individualism-collectivism; Power distance; Uncertainty Avoidance; Masculinity-Femininity + Confucian Dynamism ◦ Trompenaars (1993): Individualism-collectivism; past-presentfuture orientation; emotionality-emotional neutrality; universalism-particularism; specificity-diffuseness; ascribedachieved status. ◦ Schwartz (1994): Hierarchy; Conservatism; Autonomy; Mastery; Harmony; Equality. ◦ Triandis (1996): Vertical-Horizontal Individualism-Collectivism. ◦ The GLOBE Project (House et al. , 2005): In-group collectivism (family, institutional); power distance; uncertainty avoidance; gender egalitarianism; future orientation; performance orientation; humanism; assertiveness. ◦ The Model of Culture Fit (Aycan et al. , 2000): Loyalty toward community; paternalism; fatalism; power distance.

Assumptions ◦ Maznevski & Di. Stefano (2002): Mastery-harmony; individualcollective-colleteral; human nature evil-good; past-presentfuture orientation; doing-being. ◦ Model of culture Fit (Aycan et al. 2000): Malleability; proactivity; obligation; participation; responsibility seeking. Practices ◦ Smith, Peterson, Schwartz (2002): Event management – supervisor; unwritten sources; experts; colleagues; (religious) beliefs; self. ◦ House, et al. , GLOBE Projesi (1999): In-group collectivism (family, institutional); power distance; uncertainty avoidance; gender egalitarianism; future orientation; performance orientation; humanism; assertiveness. Norms ◦ Gelfand et al. (in preparation) – Cultural tightness-loseness.

Belief systems ◦ Leung, Bond, vd. , 2002 – Social axioms: Cynicism, social chaos, spirituality; fate control. Cognitive processes ◦ Hall (1960): High-low context. ◦ Glenn (1981), Sinha ve Kanungo (1997): Associative– abstractive thinking ◦ Witkin, Dyk, vd. (1962): Context dependenceindependence.

(Hofstede, 1980)

MASCULINITY 7 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE

Beyond sophisticated stereotypes… According to Hofstede’s findings, German/Russian/Turkish/Portugese/ Dutch culture is high/low/medium in Individualism and high/low/medium in power distance. Do all people in this country exhibit this value? Do people in this country exhibit this value in all circumstances? Under what circumstances would they not exhibit this value and why?

Beyond sophisticated stereotypes: Cultural sensemaking Sophisticated stereotypes should be the beginning of cultural learning, not the end… (Mixing Hercules with Buddha) Learning another culture occurs in a dialectic fashion: thesis, antithesis, synthesis ◦ Thesis: hypothesis involving a sophisticated stereotype. ◦ Antithesis: identification of an apparently oppositional cultural paradox. ◦ Synthesis: making sense of contradictory, understand why certain values are more important in certain contexts.

Sterotypes Guess Anecdotal impression More ecological fallacy Based on general characteristics Judgmental feelings Emphasize differences Created by a foreigner (or outsider) Sophisticated Streotypes Scientific guess Created based on values, beliefs and assumptions Ecological fallacy is less because of the large sample size A system to compare w/ some scales Standardized Superficial, for personal uses, useful Relatively more objective Created by asking locals ( through surveys)!! But you create questions Emphasize both similarities and differences Information comes from within culture even though they are sophisticated they are still

GLOBE PROJECT findings http: //www. grovewell. com/pub-GLOBE-intro. html In-group & Family Collectivism: The degree to which individuals express loyalty, cohesiveness in their families. 11

Organizational Collectivism: The degree to which organizational practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action. 12

Power Distance: The degree to which members of an organization or society expect and agree that power should be shared unequally. 13

Uncertainty Avoidance The degree to which individuals rely on social norms, rules and policies to alleviate unpredictability of future events. 14

Performance Orientation The degree to which a collective encourages and rewards members for performance improvement and excellence. 15

Future Orientation The extent to which individuals engage in future-oriented behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning and investing in future. 16

Assertiveness: The degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their relationship with others. 17

Humane Orientation: The degree to which there is encouragement and rewards for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring and kind to others. 18

Gender egalitarianism: The degree to which gender inequalities are minimized. 19

Cross-Cultural Variations (Aycan, 2006) Maintain Good Interpersonal Relationships & In-group Harmony Improve Performance 1. Individualism vs. Collectivism 1 4 2. Performance-orientation 1 Low 7 4 Individualism 7 High 3. Attitudes towards work Work to live 1 4 7 Live to work 4. Attitudes towards rules Particularism 1 4 7 Universalism 20

5. Nature of work relationships Emotional 1 4 7 Contractual 6. Attitudes towards criticisms Negative 1 4 7 Positive 7. Communication style Indirect, subtle (high context) 1 Direct, assertive (low context) 8. Problem-solving approach Avoidance 1 4 Third-party involvement 7 Confrontation 21

Maintain Status Hierarchy 1. Societal & Organizational Structure (Power Distance) Hierarchical 1 4 Promote egalitarianism & participation 7 Egalitarian 2. Decision making process Centralized 1 4 7 4 7 Consultative Participative 3. Attitudes towards rules Particularism 1 Universalism 4. Status is driven from 1 Ascription Achievement 22

Inflexibility; lack of belief in change & development Flexibility; belief in change & development 1. Fatalism High 1 4 7 Low 2. Planning Past-oriented 1 4 Present-oriented (short-term) 7 Future-oriented (long-term) 3. Attitudes towards change Negative 1 Neutral 4 7 Positive 4. Perception of human nature Evil & stable 1 Good & malleable 23

Cross-Cultural Research & Data Analysis Be careful: Equivalences Score aggregation

Equaivalences in Cross-Cultural Research Equivalences 1. Sample equivalence 2. Linguistic equivalence 3. Conceptual (structural) equivalences 4. Metric equivalence 5. Response style equivalence (e. g. , language of questions influences the answers; culture influences the response style; inflation or modesty effect; no response)

Levels of Analysis 1. Pancultural analysis: Analysis that is done using all the subjects in the study (e. g. , 10 countries 100 participants in each; N = 1000). 2. Country level analysis: Analysis that is conducted in each country separately. 3. Ecological level analysis: Analysis based on the aggregate score of countries (e. g. , 10 countries, 100 participants in each; N=10). 4. Individual level analysis: Analysis based on standardized scores of participants using the country scores that they belong to.

Score aggregation ICC: Intraclass correlations 2. rwg: Within group correlation 3. WABA (within-between analysis) 1.

ICC http: //www. john-uebersax. com/stat/icc. htm The Intraclass Correlation (ICC) assesses rating reliability by comparing the variability of different ratings of the same subject to the total variation across all ratings and all subjects. s 2(b) ICC = ------ s 2(b) + s 2 (w) where s 2(w) is the pooled variance within subjects, and s 2(b) is the variance of the trait between subjects. ICC is the proportion of total variance accounted for by within-subject variation.

Cox, T. (1993). Cultural diversity in organizations: theory, research, and practice. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Earley, P. C. , & Mosakowski, E. (2000). Creating hybrid team cultures: An empirical test of transnational team functioning, Academy of Management Journal, 43(1), 26 -49. Glenn, E. S. , & Glenn, C. G. (1981). Man and mankind: conflict and communication between cultures, Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Hall, E. (1960). The silent language in overseas business, Harvard Business Review, 38(3), 87 -96. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. House, R. , Javidan, M. , & Dorfman, P. (2001) Project Globe: An introduction. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 2001, 50(4), 489 -505. Peterson, M. F. , Smith, P. B. , et al. (1995). Role conflict, ambiguity, and overload: A-21 nation study, Academy of Management Journal, 38, 429 -452. Ronen, S. , & Shenkar, O. (1985). Clustering countries on attitudinal dimensions: A review and synthesis, Academy of Management Review, 10(3), 435 -454. Schein, E. H. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond individualism and collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. -C. Choi, G. Yoon (Eds. ), Individualism and collectivism (pp. 85 -122). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Smith, P. B. , Peterson, M. F. , & Schwartz, S. H. (2002). Cultural values, sources of guidance, and their relevance to managerial behavior: A 47 -nation study. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 33(2), 188 -208. Triandis, H. C. (1980). Introduction to Handbook. In H. C. Triandis & W. E. Lambert (Eds. ), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol 1, Perspectives (pp. 1 -14). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Triandis, H. C. (1996). The psychological measurement of cultural syndromes, American Psychologist, 51(4), 407 -415. Triandis, H. C. , Chan, D. K. -S. , & Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1995). Multimethod Probes of Allocentrism and idiocentrism, International Journal of Psychology, 30(4), 461 -480. Triandis, H. C. , Malpass, R. , & Davidson, A. R. (1973). Psychology and culture. Annual Review of Psychology, 24, 355 -378. Trompenaars, F. (1993). Riding the waves of culture. London: Brealey.