
a4d3bb0c344918e90f6d2fbf6d2044dc.ppt
- Количество слайдов: 26
Covering Arrays – Mathematical, Engineering, and Scientific Perspectives Alan Hartman May 2006 Fields Institute Workshop on Covering Arrays – Carleton University, Ottawa Copyright 2006 © IBM Corporation
Outline • Mathematics • Engineering • Science
Mathematics • Definition • My favorite constructions
Covering Array - Definition • A covering array of strength t for k parameters over domains of size n with R test cases is: • An Rxk matrix with entries in {0, 1, …n-1} • Every Rxt submatrix contains every ordered t-tuple over {0, 1, …n-1} in at least one of its rows • is the minimum R such that there exists a covering suite of R test cases with parameters t, k, n • Equivalent to finding the maximum k such that there exists a covering suite of R test cases with parameters t, k, n
Combinatorial Constructions Let be the smallest integer such that K 2 -3 4 5 -10 11 -15 16 -35 36 -56 57 -126 R 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 First row all 0 Subsequent columns are incidence vectors of subsets of an set
Combinatorial Constructions First row all 0 Subsequent columns are incidence vectors of subsets of an set 00 in first row 11 since any pair of subsets intersect 01 and 10 since the subsets are the same size Best possible by Sperner’s Lemma and Erdös-Ko-Rado Theorem
Recursion for t>2 Let - the Turan number - be the maximum number of edges over all graphs with vertices having no clique of size Uses perfect covering suites (OAs) of strength 2 to square the number of columns
Example: t=3, n=2 The maximum number of edges over all graphs with 3 vertices having no clique of size 3 is 2. A A k. A A 1 A k. A A 2 A k. A . . . 3 2 A A . . . k. A k . . . k-1 A
The general construction T(t, n)+1 k 1 2 3 N A A A … A k B[i, j] k 2 k T(t, n)+1 C[i , j]=A 2 B[j, i]
Engineering Aspects • Motivation • Applications • Input Coverage • FSM Reduction • Military • Ease of Use • Effectiveness
Applications • Software input coverage test suites • Software and hardware FSM model reduction • Blind disoriented robots on a line
Testing - Motivation • Testing is important • Testing is expensive • Poor testing is even more expensive
Downtime Hourly Cost • Brokerage operations $6, 450, 000 • Credit card authorization $2, 600, 000 • Ebay (1 outage 22 hours) $225, 000 • Amazon. com $180, 000 • Package shipping services $150, 000 • Home shopping channel $113, 000 • Catalog sales center $90, 000 • Airline reservation center $89, 000 • Cellular service activation $41, 000 • On-line network fees $25, 000 • ATM service fees $14, 000
A Testing Problem • Test an internet site: – Operating system: Win, Linux, Solaris – Browser: Explorer, Netscape – Printer: Epsom, HP, IBM – Protocol: Token Ring, Ethernet 36 combinations (OS, Br, Prt, Pcl) 1 tester 3 days
A Covering Array Solution OS Windows Linux Solaris Browser Explorer Netscape Explorer Printer Epsom HP IBM Protocol TR Enet TR Enet
Model Based Testing with FSMs • An abstract model of SW • Nodes are labeled by tuples of state variables • Arcs are labeled by possible inputs to the SW • Test cases are generated by judicious choices of paths through the state space • Problem: State and Arc explosion • Solution: Covering Arrays to sample the arcs at each state
Blind disoriented synchronized robots • k robots start at points 1, 2, …k on a line • They cannot see each other • They have no common sense of direction • They all move at speed 1 • They have to rendezvous in a minimum number of steps
Blind disoriented synchronized robots • Stage 1: Identify the extreme robots • Stage 2: Extreme robots proceed towards the centre. • Optimize stage 1 by giving each robot a column in a binary covering suite with t=2 • Interpret 0 as a move ½ left then ½ right • Interpret 1 as a move ½ right then ½ left • After are known steps the extreme robots
Usability and Extensibility • The Pairwise Website (www. pairwise. org) lists 20 tools for constructing covering arrays • Key factors for usability: • NO MATH • Constraints! – but how • Distinction between legal and illegal inputs
• 1. CATS (Constrained Array Test System) *) [Sherwood] Bell Labs. • 2. OATS (Orthogonal Array Test System) *) [Phadke] AT&T • 3. AETG Telecordia Web-based, commercial • 4. IPO (Pair. Test) *) [Tai/Lei] • 5. TConfig [Williams] Java-applet • 6. TCG (Test Case Generator) *) NASA • 7. All. Pairs Satisfice Perl script, free, GPL • 8. Pro-Test Sigma. Zone GUI, commercial • 9. CTS (Combinatorial Test Services) IBM Free for non-commercial use • 10. Jenny [Jenkins] Command-line, free, public-domain • 11. Reduce. Array 2 STSC, U. S. Air Force Spreadsheet-based, free • 12. Test. Cover Testcover. com Web-based, commercial • 13. DDA *) [Colburn/Cohen/Turban] • 14. Test Vector Generator GUI, free • 15. OA 1 k sharp technology • 16. CTE-XL Daimler Chrystler GUI, free • 17. All. Pairs [Mc. Dowell] Command-line, free • 18. Intelligent Test Case Handler (replaces CTS) IBM Free for non-commercial use • 19. Case. Maker Díaz & Hilterscheid GUI, commercial • 20. PICT Microsoft Command-line, free
WHITCH • WHITCH is open and extensible • 62 downloads – since January • You get a free Covering Array GUI • Why not use it to liven up your next grant application? • www. alphaworks. ibm. com/tech/whitch
WHITCH – Interface • GUI panel for defining Types • GUI panel for defining Columns • GUI panels for choosing algorithms, variations etc. • Java interfaces for plugging in new ideas, algorithms, panels
Science • Empirical Software Engineering • What are the issues
But is it all worth the trouble? • Schroeder, Bolaki, Gopu, 2004 pointed out that random test suites of the same size are equally as effective as covering arrays in detecting injected SW defects • James Bach has been trumpeting the news in all the engineering forums • Do we have an answer?
SBG Arguments • Previous papers compared pairwise to “conventional testing” • Correlated code coverage with fault detection • Small applications (6 -8 KLOC) • Artificially seeded bugs
Empirical SW Testing • Need further experiments to determine if and when covering arrays do help: • Real software • Real faults • Real software testers