CONTRASTIVE TYPOLOGY OF ENGLISH UKRAINIAN GRAMMAR Lecture

CONTRASTIVE TYPOLOGY OF ENGLISH & UKRAINIAN GRAMMAR Lecture 1 -History -Aims -Methods

PLAN A HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF TYPOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS BASIC TERMINOLOGY PRACTICAL AIMS AND TASKS OF CONTRASTIVE TYPOLOGY METHODS OF INVESTIGATION IN CONTRASTIVE TYPOLOGY

LANGUAGE AS A SYSTEM LEVELS PHOLOGICAL LEXICAL MORPHOLOGICAL PHONOMORPHOLOGICAL MORPHOSYNTACTIC TEXT DISCOURSE

LINGUISTICS Comparative diachronic AIM: to demonstrate family relations between cognate languages, to illustrate the historical developments of one or more languages Contrastive synchronic AIM: to show in what ways the two respective languages differ, in order to help in the solution of practical problems (foreign language acquisition & translation)

CONTRASTIVE DESCRIPTIONS can occur at every level of linguistic structure: speech sounds (phonology) written symbols (graphology) word-formation (morphology) word meaning (lexicology) collocation (phraseology) sentence structure (syntax) complete discourse (textology)

1. A HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF TYPOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS MORPHOLOGICAL CRITERION Frederick Schlegel (1772 -1829) singled out (1) Affixal languages – Turkic, Polynesian, Chinese (2) Inflexional languages – Semitic, French, Georgian (1) (2) (3) August Schlegel (1767 -1845) singled out Without any grammatical structure Affixal Flexional

WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT (1767 -1835) “father” of Typology 4 CLASSES: (1) Isolating – devoid of form-buiding morphemes (Chinese) (2) Agglutinative – Turkic (3) Flexional – Indo-European, Semitic (4) Incorporating – words combine into wordsentences (American Indian) the idea of language EVOLUTION

FRANZ BOPP (1791 -1867) SYLLABIC ROOT STRUCTURE CRITERION (1) (2) (3) Monosyllabic languages – one syllable root morpheme (Chinese) Root + other roots and affixes (Indo-European) Disyllabic/ trisyllabic root word structures (Semitic)

SYNTACTIC RELATIONA CRITERION H. Steinthal (1823 -1899) F. Mistley F. N. Fink TYPES: (1) Subordinating word-type (Turkish) (2) Incorporating word-type (in Greenland) (3) Regulating type (Bantu) (4) Isolating root (Chinese) (5) Isolating stem (Samoa) (6) Root inflected (Arabic) (7) Stem inflected (Greek) (8) Group inflected (Georgian)

EDWARD SAPIR (1884 -1939) Types 1. Criteria 2. Degree of cohesion between root and affix Degree of synthesis Nature of grammatical joining morphemes in a word (isolation, agglutination, etc) 3. 4. Simple purely relational (synt. rel. realized without affixes) – Chinese Complicated purely relational (synt. rel. realized with/without affixes) – Turkish Simple mixed-type relational (agglutination and fusion) – French Complex mixed relational (inner alteration, affixes) – English

BASIC TERMINOLOGY Absolute universals Near universals features or phenomena of a language level pertaining to any language of the world (cf. vowels and consonants, word stress and utterance stress, intonation sentences, parts of the sentence, parts of speech, etc. ). (часткові універсалії) features or phenomena common in many or some languages under typological investigation.

Metalanguage is the language in which the actual presentation/analysis of different features/phenomena of the contrasted languages is carried out. The etalon language is a hypothetic language created by typologists for the sake of contrasting any languages. This "language" is supposed to contain exhaustive quantitative and qualitative data or characteristics concerning all existing language units and phenomena.

Typologically dominant features (типологічні домінанти) dominating at a language level or in the structure of one/some of the contrasted languages Eg. rigid word order Cats eat mice dominant features of a language predetermine its structural type as analytical, synthetic, agglutinative, etc. Typologically recessive features/phenomena losing their former dominant role Eg. case forms in English

Isomorphic features/phenomena are common features/phenomena in languages under Contrastive analysis. SAME !!! Allomorphic features/phenomena are observed in one language and missing in the other DIFFERENT !!!

THE OBJECT of investigation may involve an extensive language area/material or it may involve a restricted object/ material of investigation Due to this there are distinguished several branches of typological (or Contrastive typological) investigation often referred to as separate typologies.

1. UNIVERSAL TYPOLOGY investigates all languages of the world and aims at singling out in them such features/phenomena which are common in all languages i. e. absolute universals Their identification is carried out on the basis of the living and dead languages like Sanskrit, ancient Greek or Latin

2. SPECIAL OR CHARACTEREOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY investigates concrete languages The language in which the description of isomorphic and allomorphic features is performed is usually referred to as metalanguage In our here case the metalanguage is English.

General typology 3. Partial typology 4. investigates a restricted number of language features/phenomena Eg. system of vowels/consonants, the means of word-formation or the syntactic level units. As a result, several level typologies are distinguished: a) typology of the phonetic/phonological level units; b) typology of the morphological level units; c) typology of the lexical level units; d) typology of the syntactic level units investigates the most general phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic or stylistic features

Areal typology 5. Structural typology 6. investigates common and divergent features in languages of a particular geographical area with respect to their mutual influence of one language upon the other has for its object the means of grammatical expression, the order of constituent parts at the level of words, word combinations and sentences Structural typology aims at identifying mainly dominant features, which characterise the structural type of each of the contrasted languages.

Content typology 7. 8. investigates the Functional typology frequency of language units in speech, the regularities and particularities of their use with the aim of expressing different meanings. types of possible meanings expressed by various language units and their forms in the contrasted languages.

Qualitative typology 9. Quantitative typology 10. investigates the predominant features quantitative correlation (phonetic, of some features and morphological, syntactic) phenomena and their in the contrasted identifying (dominant) role languages and in the contrasted languages characteres them J. Greenberg according to the predominance of some of these qualities

11. Semasiological typology 12. Onomasiological typology investigates the ways of expressing meaning (the inner content) of language units in the contrasted languages isomorphic and allomorphic ways of giving names in different contrasted languages.

13. Synchronic typology 14. Diachronic typology investigates language units or phenomena of a definite level with the aim of establishing isomorphisms and allomorphisms in their form and meaning during a definite (same) historical period in the contrasted languages investigates language units and phenomena in different historical periods

METHOD is a system of approaches used: to study phenomena and regularities of nature, society and thinking; to reach any definite results in practice; organize and systematize theoretical and practical results obtained in the research.

Methods are the ways of: Finding Collecting Describing new linguistic facts

METHODS General Specific used in any sphere of human knowledge : deduction induction analysis synthesis play an extraordinary important role in the development of a certain branch of science: Descriptive Comparative Structural, Etc

HISTORICAL &COMPARATIVE METHOD ü ü bases: on the study about the genealogical kinship of some languages. In other words, it aims at establishing the parent language: e. g. Comparing Ukr новий, Gr néos, Eng new, G neu, Arm nov gave the possibility to reconstruct the indoeuropean preform *nevos; it studies changes in phonology, grammar and the word-stock of the daughter languages under investigation.

CONTRASTIVE METHOD Ø is used to find phenomena of some languages which have analogous functions regardless of the fact whether the contrasted languages are genealogically close or not Ø aims at establishing the isomorphic /allomorphic features, the dominant features and on their basis the establishment of structural types of languages under investigation

STRUCTURAL METHOD The structural method aims at studying language as the whole structure, the elements of which are interrelated and are connected with the system of linguistic relations.

STRUCTURAL METHOD realizes itself in 4 methodologies: 1. Immediate constituent analysis 2. Distributional analysis 3. Transformational analysis 4. Componental analysis (which is mostly employed in Lexicology with ‘‘semes’’)

1. IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS In typology the ICs method is employed to contrast language units with the aim of establishing their constituent parts in the contrasted languages.

IC ON THE PHONOLOGICAL LEVEL : finds consonantal and vocalic components in words or syllables. GARDEN = 4 sounds = 2 syllables = [ga: -dn] NB: the second syllable is specific for the English language consonantal syllable. (The Ukr. correspondent word consists of one syllable only).

IC ON THE MORPHOLOGICAL LEVEL helps to establish the morphemic components of words Writings (3 Ics) root morpheme (writ-) suffix ending (-ing) (-s)

IC ON THE SYNTACTIC LEVEL establishes the constituent parts of the word-group or sentence the predicative WG ‘‘I have’’ the objective WG ‘‘I have English lessons twice a week‘‘ ‘‘I have lessons’’ the attributive WG ‘‘English lessons’’ the adverbial WG ‘‘twice a week’’

2. DISTRIBUTIONAL ANALYSIS based on the study of distribution of separate units in the text DISTRIBUTION = COMBINABILITY

EG. UKRAINIAN «МАТИ» «мати» (Noun) is combined with: «мати» (Verb) is combined with the noun in the Accusative Case adjectives (ласкава мати) pronouns (моя мати) verbs (мати прийшла) мати успіх

STAGES OF DISTRIBUTIONAL ANALYSIS: 1. Segmentation of the text into the smaller elementary units – phones/morphs; 2. Identification of units and classifying them. For identification of units the method of substitution is used (e. g. Я купив п’ять книг / яблук, олівців тощо). So, книг / яблук, олівців belong to the same class of countable nouns. Compare: *Я купив п’ять молок / вод); 3. The establishment of relations between classes.

TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION: Complementary Free Contrastive

COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION (ДОПОВНЮВАЛЬНА) relationship between two different elements, where one element is found in a particular environment and the other element is found in the opposite environment Eg. consider the English indefinite articles a and an a bear, a cat BUT an ant, an elephant

FREE DISTRIBUTION (ВІЛЬНОГО ВАРІЮВАННЯ) is the phenomenon of two (or more) sounds or forms appearing in the same environment without a change in meaning e. g. the endings of the Dative Case of nouns of the masculine gender in Ukrainian –у, -ові: абзацу / абзацові, фікусу / фікусові; the plural of some English words like: formulas / formulae;

CONTRASTIVE DISTRIBUTION (КОНТРАСТНА) is the relationship between two different elements, where both elements are found in the same environment with a change in meaning Eg. I go to Paris. I will go to Paris. I am going to Paris. I went to Paris.

3. TRANSFORMATIONAL ANALYSIS NUCLEAR/ KERNEL vs DERIVATIVE Ø The syntactic system of the language can be divided into some subsystems, one of which is nuclear/kernel and the rest are its derivatives (system subsystems); Ø Every nuclear/kernel sentence describes an elementary situation (sentence = situation); Ø Any complicated syntactic type is a result of different transformations used to one or some nuclear sentences (complicated sentence = result of transformations).

TRANSFORMATIONAL ANALYSIS is used in typology for: identifying the nature of a language unit in the contrasted languages, revealing the difference in the meaning of the structure

EG. “The lessons over, we went home”: “Думаю, завтра прийду”: 1. = Зараз подумаю. – Завтра прийду (2 homogeneous predicates) 1. = оскільки уроки закінчилися (adverbial clause of cause) 2. = Думаю, що завтра прийду (main clause + object clause). 1. = після того як уроки закінчилися (adverbial clause of time)

“Запрошення актора” = Він запросив 2. = Його запросили 1. “Flying planes can be dangerous” = Planes fly 2. = People fly by planes 1.

4. QUANTITATIVE METHOD J. Greenberg helps to identify the quantitative co-occurence or frequency of some feature or phenomenon in the contrasted languages which helps to classify the languages, i. e. define their type Квантитативный подход к морфологической типологии языков www. philology. ru

HOW DOES IT WORK? ? ? Pick a one hundred word passage Analyze it according to 10 parameters Compare the results in contrasted languages

1. THE DEGREE OF SYNTHESIS M/W M – number of morphemes W – number of words On a cold winter day I decided to walk. I came to a path off of the main road and ventured that way. The landscape became rough, sharp rocks and steep hills. I climbed over dead trees and waded through water. I was cold, cut, and bruised. The obstacles became more sparse as I continued forward. I was ready to give up because I was wet and cold. Then out of nowhere came a meadow. Light was streaming down from the heavens and it had the greenest grass with a beautiful creek and sunflowers. I made it through my journey. 119/100 = 1. 19 The higher the index – the more synthetic the language

2. THE DEGREE OF AGGLUTINATION A/J A – number of agglutinative constructions J – number of junctures (морфні шви) On a cold winter day I decided to walk. I came to a path off of the main road and ventured that way. The landscape became rough, sharp rocks and steep hills. I climbed over dead trees and waded through water. I was cold, cut, and bruised. The obstacles became more sparse as I continued forward. I was ready to give up because I was wet and cold. Then out of nowhere came a meadow. Light was streaming down from the heavens and it had the greenest grass with a beautiful creek and sunflowers. I made it through my journey. 17/18 = 0. 94 The less the index – the more fusional the language

3. THE PRODUCTIVITY DEGREE COMPOSITIONAL INDEX R/W R – number of roots in notionals W – number of words cold winter day I decided walk I came path main road ventured way landscape became rough sharp rocks steep hills I climbed dead trees waded water I was cold cut bruised obstacles became more sparse I continued forward I was ready give I was wet cold came meadow Light was streaming heavens it had greenest grass beautiful creek sunflowers I made it my journey 65/100 = 0. 65

4. THE INDEX OF DERIVATIOND/W D – number of derivational morphemes W – number of words Eg. teach-er, re-cycle Became -2. Nowhere Beautiful Because 5/100 = 0. 05

5. INFLEXIONAL INDEX I/W I – number of inflexional morphemes W – number of words On a cold winter day I decided to walk. I came to a path off of the main road and ventured that way. The landscape became rough, sharp rocks and steep hills. I climbed over dead trees and waded through water. I was cold, cut, and bruised. The obstacles became more sparse as I continued forward. I was ready to give up because I was wet and cold. Then out of nowhere came a meadow. Light was streaming down from the heavens and it had the greenest grass with a beautiful creek and sunflowers. I made it through my journey. 25/100 = 0. 25

6. THE INDEX OFPREFIXATION P/W 7. THE INDEX OF SUFFIXATIONS/W became -2 because 2/100 = 0. 02 decided ventured rocks hills climbed trees waded bruised obstacles continued streaming heavens greenest beautiful sunflowers 15/100 = 0. 15

HOMETASK Korunets – Pp. 13 -33 Study questions – pp. 33 -34 Article Квантитативный подход к морфологической типологии языков www. philology. ru Find 100 -word passage in English and Ukrainian (preferably the same text) Analyze according to Greenberg’s method (points discussed in class only)