Chapter 9 Business Cycles, Unemployment and Inflation
Determining Unemployment Rate -Monthly survey of 60, 000 households conducted by the U. S. Bureau of Census (survey known as Current Population Survey) -Bureau of Labor and Statistics (BLS) analyzes data and calculates unemployment rate Definitions used in analysis Employed: worked during the previous week of the survey or was temporarily away from job because of illness, on vacation, on strike, etc Unemployed: did not work in previous week but was available to work and had actually looked for work at some time during the previous four weeks.
Labor Force: sum of the # employed and # unemployed from survey -- people who do not have a job and who are not actually looking for a job are not part of the labor force Discouraged Workers: people available for work but have not looked for a job in the previous four weeks because they believe there is no job for them. -- groups typically not in the labor force include the following: • • • Retirees Homemakers Full time students People on active military service People in prison People in mental hospitals
From the results of the survey: Unemployment Rate = # Unemployed X 100 # in Labor Force # Unemployed_____ X 100 # Employed + # Unemployed -- unemployment rate can be found at www. bls. gov. Data exists at national, state and local levels. -- Current employment rate = _____ -- majority of those classified as unemployed were unemployed for six months
Issues w Unemployment Rate Derivation 1) Counts part-time workers as employed (may prefer to be full-time) 2) Economic Recessions leads to discouraged workers (not counted in labor force) -- underestimates unemployment 3) Incorrect responses
Labor Force Participation Rate -- % of working age population in the labor force Labor Force Participation = # in Labor Force X 100 Rate # Working Age Population -- determines the amt of labor available in economy. -- In Dec of 2007, the rate was 66. 0%
![Types of Unemployment I] Frictional Unemployment -- Short-term unemployment arising from the process of](https://present5.com/presentation/0370fd1f74990d2f65c0f8f285b42d42/image-7.jpg "Types of Unemployment I] Frictional Unemployment -- Short-term unemployment arising from the process of")
Types of Unemployment I] Frictional Unemployment -- Short-term unemployment arising from the process of matching people with jobs (people who are between jobs, who are first time workers or who are reentering the work force Example: Jane, a mother, decides to return to work as a nurse after taking four years off to be with her child Benefits -- People find jobs that better suits their interest and skills. This leads to higher productivity and earnings II] Seasonal Unemployment -- Unemployment related to seasonal factors such as weather and tourism -- Unemployment rates for the traditional seasonal months are reported with seasonally adjusted rates Examples: Construction workers and teachers
![III] Structural Unemployment -- Unemployment from mismatches between workers’ skills and employers' requirements for](https://present5.com/presentation/0370fd1f74990d2f65c0f8f285b42d42/image-8.jpg "III] Structural Unemployment -- Unemployment from mismatches between workers’ skills and employers' requirements for")
III] Structural Unemployment -- Unemployment from mismatches between workers’ skills and employers' requirements for the jobs -- Usually long term because it takes time to acquire skills and/or to relocate IV] Cyclical Unemployment -- Unemployment caused by business cycles Recessions correspond to high unemployment Expansions correspond to low or "average“ unemployment • • • Full Employment A situation where there is no cyclical unemployment (levels of Frictional, Seasonal and Structural unemployment exist) Economists believe that the full employment level is a level of unemployment around 5. 0% (% of unemployment makes up Frictional, Seasonal and Structural unemployment) Referred to as the natural rate of unemployment or Normal Unemployment
Example: If the unemployment rate = 8% and full employment is defined as an unemployment rate = 5. 0%, how much cyclical unemployment exists?
Measuring Inflation: % increase in the price level from one year to the next Consumer Price Index (CPI) -- avg of the prices of the goods and services purchased by the typical family -- compiled by the Bureau Of Labor & Statistics (BLS) -- starts with a survey of households (Consumer Expenditure Survey) and their spending habits (recently updated to every 2 years) § Results in an array of goods/services (211 types) that make-up the Market Basket of Goods 8 categories of Goods (% of expenditures) 1) Housing (42%) 2) Transportation (17. 4%) 3) Food/Beverage (15. 3%) 4) Medical Care (6. 1%) 5) Education/Communication (5. 8%) 6) Recreation (5. 7%) 7) Apparel (3. 8%) 8) Other (3. 8%) § Includes only the ordinary goods (i. e. lawn hoses, filters, pool supplies, etc would probably not be included)
Consumer Price Index (CPI), cont -- BLS employees also visit stores each month recording prices of the Market Basket of goods and services. -- Each price is given a weight equal to fraction of typical family’s budget spent on these items. -- Referred to as the cost of living index Calculation: -- base year is typically the avg of prices between 1982 and 1984 CPI = Cost of Market Basket in Current Year x 100 Cost of Market Basket in Base Year (ratio of the dollar amt necessary to buy the market basket of goods in current year divided by the dollar amt necessary to buy the market basket in base year) -- assumes households buy the same amt of goods in time frames
Example: Assume the following -- 1983 is the base year -- 1983 Market Basket = $____ billion -- 1990 Market Basket = $____ billion CPI 1990 = _____ x 100 = Interpretation: It costs ____% more for the basket of goods in 1990 versus 1983
Example (Using Simple Budget) Assume 2000 is the base year and the typical family expenditures/month are the following: Exp 2007 2000 Pizza (20 each @ $10/pizza) $ $ Rent $ $ Gasoline and Car Maintenance $ $ Phone (basic serv + 10 long distance calls $ $ TTLS
Calculate the CPI for 2007 CPI 2007 = _______ x 100 CPI 2007 = _______ Interpretation: Basket of goods in 2007 is ____% higher than in 2000
Importance of CPI 1) Calculating the inflation rate -- % change in CPI from one period to the next -- measures how fast the avg price level is changing Inflation Rate = (CPI Current Year - CPI Prior Year) / CPI Prior Year x 100 = [(CPI Current Year / CPI Prior Year ) – 1] (or) x 100 Describing Inflation Rate a) Inflation: Inflation Rate > 0 -- increasing avg price level Disinflation: Inflation Rate > 0 but at a decreasing rate Eg) If in 1990, inflation rate = 3. 8% and 1991 inflation rate was 3. 6%, we would say that in 1991 there was disinflation b) Deflation: Inflation Rate < 0 -- decreasing avg price level c) Stable Prices: Inflation Rate = 0
Example: Assume the following Years are sequential Year CPI Inflation A 80 --B 100 ______ C 115 ______ D 110 ______ Identify Base year: ______ Identify Inflationary year(s): _____ Identify Deflationary year(s): _____ Interpretation: Cost of living increased by __% in year C or prices increased by __% from year B to year C
Importance of CPI, cont. 2) Deflating Nominal Variables -- converting variables from Nominal to Real Variables -- adjustment of a variable for changes in the dollar’s purchasing power a) Nominal Variable: Variables measured in current dollar values b) Real Variable: Variables adjusted for changes in the price level » Quantifies purchasing power Real Value = Nominal Value CPI x 100
Use of CPI and Real Wage: wage measured in terms of purchasing power Real Wage Year A = Nominal Wage in Year A x 100 CPI in Year A Example: GM Factory Worker 1974 Wage = $_____/hr 2000 Wage = $_____/hr Q: Is this worker better off? CPI 1974 = ____ CPI 2000 = ____ Real Wage 1974 = $_____/____x 100 = $_____ Real Wage 2000 = $____/____ x 100 = $_____ % change in real wage = ($____-$____)/$_____ = _____% -- although nominal wage tripled, in terms or purchasing power, GM worker is worse off.
Importance of CPI, cont. 3) Index Payments -- adjusting a nominal payment (such as income) to rise and fall with the CPI. -- goal is for purchasing power to remain the same -- many labor contracts’ annual salary adjustments are tied to the CPI. -- also known as the cost of living adjustment Example: If you expect 3% inflation next year and if your salary is tied to the CPI, a salary of $30, 000 will need to increase to _____
Importance of CPI, cont. 4) Comparing Dollar Value From Different Years -- on BLS website, known as inflation calculator. Example: Salary of $30, 000 in 1990 is equivalent to ______ in 2006. CPI in 1990 = _____ CPI in 2006 = _____ [(CPI Current Year / CPI Prior Year ) – 1] x 100 = 1. 54 -- on avg, prices in 2006 were ____% higher than in 1990. Value in 2006 $ = (Value in 1990 $) * Inflation = ______ A salary of $_______ would purchase same amt of goods as a 1990 salary of $30, 000.
Relationship Between Real Values, Nominal Values and Inflation Rate Equation: %∆Real Value ≈ % ∆Nominal Value – Inflation Rate Example: Employer and Labor Union negotiate a 3 year contract A) Agreement is for real wage to remain constant, what should be the change in nominal wage? -- If they expect a 3% inflation rate for each of the 3 years: %∆Real Value = % ∆Nominal – inflation rate ____ = % ∆Nominal -- _____ = % ∆Nominal B) Agreement is for real wage to increase 3% each year -- If they expect a 3% inflation rate for each of the 3 years: %∆Real Value = % ∆Nominal – inflation rate ____ = % ∆Nominal -- _____ = % ∆Nominal
Accuracy of CPI 1) Substitution Bias -- Within the market basket, assumption is that consumers buy same amt of product each mth reality is that consumers buy more of products whose prices have ↓ and less of those whose prices ↑. 2) Increase in quality bias -- prices increase in some products because quality improves price inc may therefore be partly due to inflation and partly quality improvement. 3) New Product Bias -- market basket is updated periodically and new products introduced between updates may not be included for some time. 4) Outlet Bias -- consumers are buying goods from non-traditional services (i. e. internet, HSN, discount stores, etc) other than traditional full price retail stores prices consumers are actually paying may be different than gov’t data.
True Costs of Inflation 1) Noise in the Price System -- Inflation makes it difficult for buyers/sellers to interpret changes in price caused by changes in supply or general inflation -- can not react appropriately to market conditions 2) Distortion of Tax System Bracket Creep -- Without tax brackets being indexed to inflation, an increase in nominal income due to inflation would cause tax payers to pay an increased amt of taxes even though real income did not change -- Congress institutes bracket creep to deal with issue inc tax brackets equal to inflation
3) Unexpected Distribution of Wealth -- Inflation that is unexpected redistributes wealth from one group to another Example: Union Contract -- If inflation (π) > Expected inflation (tied inc in wages to a level < true inc in avg price level) 4) hurts union workers benefits corp Interference With Long-Run Planning -- planning for retirement can be tricky if you can’t forecast for inflation save too much or too little
Inflation and Real Interest Rate ( r ) -- annual % increase in real purchasing power of a financial asset r=i–π where r = real interest rate i = nominal interest rate π = inflation rate Nominal Interest Rate: -- annual % increase in nominal value of a financial asset
Lender and Borrower Example -- In general, when inflation is higher than expected, borrowers are better off and lenders are worse off -- In general, when inflation is lower than expected, lenders are better off and borrowers worse off Lender Worse Off / Borrowers Better Off Lenders charge borrowers a 3% interest rate expecting a 1% inflation rate or to earn a real interest rate of 2% If inflation = 10%, r = 3% - 10% or -7%
Producer Price Index (PPI) -- An avg of the prices received by producers of goods and services at all stages of the production process -- Prices received for raw materials, intermediate goods and finished products (up to wholesale) -- 1982 is base year -- If prices rise, cost of final goods and services will rise (leading indicator) -- Measures price change from the perspective of the seller. -- Most of the data is collected through a systematic sampling of producers in manufacturing, mining, and service industries, and is published monthly by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. PPI = Cost of Goods/Services in Current Year Cost of Goods/Services in Base Year x 100
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