Chapter 6 Native Americans The First Americans

Chapter 6 Native Americans: The First Americans

Early European Contacts • Misunderstood and ill treated by their conquerors for several centuries • Diverse Ethnicity – Culture; Kinship system; Political – economic – In 1500, 700 distinct languages spoken in the area north of Mexico © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Early European Contacts • • Columbus’ diary Estimated 10 million in 1500 About 600, 000 in 1800 1 n 1900, less than 250, 000 – This loss of human life can only be judged as catastrophic © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Treaties and Warfare • US formulated a policy that followed precedents est. during colonial period – Not to antagonize Native Americans unnecessarily • Exploits of the Forty-Niners were glorified – Authorities offered bounties to settlers for the heads of American Indians © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Treaties and Warfare • The Case of Sioux – Treatment was especially cruel; remains fresh in the minds of tribal members even today – Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) • Whites entered Sioux territory spurred by Col. George Custer’s exaggerated reports of gold • Battle of Little Big Horn (1876) – Last great Sioux victory © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Treaties and Warfare • Millenarian Movement (Ghost Dance) – Originated among the Paiutes of Nevada • Functionalist perspective – Views millenarian movement as a means of coping with the domination of White intruders © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Treaties and Warfare • Battle of Wounded Knee (1890) – Cavalry arrived & random shot led to death of 300 Sioux and 25 government soldiers • Despite effects of disease and warfare, 250, 000 Indians still lived in 1890 • According to the government, Indian problem still remained © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Ruling The Native Americans • Internal Colonialism – The treatment of subordinate groups like colonial subjects by those in power • The Allotment Act (1887) • The Reorganization Act (1934) – Tribes could adopt a written constitution and elect a tribal council with a head © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reservation Life and Federal Policies • Over 1/3 rd of Native American live on 557 reservations and trust lands in 33 states – A bit more than 2% of the land throughout the US • Many 20 th century policies were designed to “get out of the Indian business” © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Legal Claims • Native Americans could not bring a claim against government; need Act of Congress – Prevented most charges of treaty violations – Only 142 claims were heard during this period • Indian Claims Commission (1946) – Established by Congress to hear claims against government © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Legal Claims • Commission extended until 1978 • Cases are now heard by the U. S. Court of Claims • The federal government agreed to a settlement of $3. 4 billion – Including individual payments of at least $1, 500 to 300, 000 individual American Indians © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Legal Claims • Congress agreed to pay $106 million for land seized in aftermath of Little Big Horn • The original settlement, the subsequent unaccepted payments, & accrued interest: – Brought the 2011 total of funds being held for the Sioux to more than $1 billion © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Termination Act of 1953 • Policy proposed as attempt to give Native Americans greater autonomy – And at the same time reduce federal expenditures • Services tribes received should not be viewed as special – And deserving to be discontinued © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Termination Act of 1953 • Unfortunately, it reduced costs and ignored individual needs • Services were to be withdrawn gradually but were stopped immediately • Effect on Native Americans disastrous – Unable to establish some of the basic services © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Termination Act of 1953 • In 1975, the government resumed the services • Signaled the end of another misguided policy – Intended to be good for Native Americans © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Employment Assistance Program • (1952) BIA began programs to relocate young Native Americans • (1962) Employment Assistance Program (EAP) – Provided educational and business assistance – Impact on the economic development of the reservation and the brain drain © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Collective Action • Pan-Indianism – Intertribal social movements; several tribes joined by political goals • Vividly seen in cultural efforts and political protests • National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) – Founded in 1944 in Denver, Colorado © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Collective Action • American Indian Movement (AIM) – Founded in 1968 by Clyde Bellecourt and Dennis Banks in Minneapolis, MN – More radical & created a patrol to monitor police actions & document police brutality • 1969 Alcatraz takeover by Francisco Indian Center © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Collective Action • Fish-ins • Red Power movement • Alaska Native Settlement Act (1971) – Claim of land rights by Inuit Eskimos and other Aleuts – Alaskan Federation of Natives (AFN) • Native Claims Settlement Act (1971) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Collective Action • Battle of Wounded Knee II – Most dramatic confrontation between Native Americans and government recently • Powwows (Pau Wau) – Medicine man/spiritual leader of Algonquian tribes • But Europeans used word to refer to entire events © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sovereignty • While collaborative action gathering cannot be minimized – There continues to be a strong effort to maintain tribal sovereignty or tribal self-rule • Sovereignty remains linked to both the actions of the federal government – And the actions of individual American Indians © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native Americans Today • The continuing use of American Indian names as mascots for athletic teams • Native American population is split between those on and off reservations – And those living in small towns & central cities • Economic Development – High rate of unemployment and poverty © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native Americans Today • Tourism and the double edged sword – Source of income but also a source of degradation • Indian Arts and Crafts Act • Cottage industries • Income from mineral rights © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Casino Gambling • Recent source of significant income and some employment • Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (1988) • Gaming money – Supports tribal members, is used to buy back tribal lands, and help underwrite cost of the: • Smithsonian Museum of the American Indian © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Casino Gambling • Three important factors: – Tribes do pay taxes – Nationwide, economic and social impact of gambling revenue is limited – Levels of unemployment are higher and family income lower than for the nation as a whole © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Casino Gambling • Another major source of employment for Native Americans is the government – BIA, federal agencies, military, and state and local governments • Dominant feature of reservation life is unemployment – About 50% unemployed © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Education • Dropout rate about 15% compared to 6. 4% of Whites – Many found their educational experience so hostile that they had no choice but to leave • Kickouts/Pushouts – More appropriate terms experience of Native Americans with school system © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Education • Problems in Native American Education include: – Under-enrollment at all levels, from primary grades through college – Need to adjust to a school with values dramatically different from those of the home © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Native American Education – The need to make the curriculum more relevant – The under-financing of tribal community colleges – Language barrier faced by the many children who have little or no knowledge of English © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Healthcare • For Native Americans, “healthcare” is a misnomer: – Another broken promise in the long line of unmet pledges the government has made • Contributing to the problems of healthcare and mortality on reservations are often: – High rates of crime © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Religious and Spiritual Expression • American Indian Religious Freedom Act passed by Congress in 1978 • Concern with stockpiling Native American relics, including burial remains • Native American Church - ritualistic use of peyote and marijuana © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Environment • Concerns: – Environmental literature stereotypes – Many environmental issues rooted in continuing land disputes arising from treaties – Environmental issues reinforce tendency to treat first inhabitants of Americas as inferior © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Environment • CERT was formed in 1976 - Council of Energy Resource Tribes – Consisted of 25 of the West’s largest tribes – Other tribes were added later – Purpose to protect and develop tribal natural resources such as natural gas – Environmental justice © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.