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Chapter 6 Communication, Conflict, and Negotiation Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -1
Chapter Outline • • • The Communication Process Barriers to Effective Communication Current Issues in Communication How Communication Breakdown Leads to Conflict Resolution Negotiation
Communication 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. How does communication work? What are the barriers to communication? What are other issues in communication? What is conflict? How can conflict be resolved? How does one negotiate effectively?
Communication Problems • People spend nearly 70 percent of their waking hours communicating—writing, reading, speaking, listening. • Work. Canada’s survey of 2039 Canadians in six industrial and service categories found – 61 percent of senior executives believed that they did a good job of communicating with employees. – only 33 percent of the managers and department heads believed that senior executives were effective communicators. – Only 22 percent of hourly workers, 27 percent of clerical employees, and 22 percent of professional staff reported that senior executives did a good job of communicating with them. • Canadians reported less favourable perceptions about their company’s communications than did Americans. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -4
Communication Terms • Communication – The transfer of meaning among people. • Sender – Establishes a message, encodes the message, and chooses the channel to send it. • Receiver – Decodes the message and provides feedback to the sender. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -5
Exhibit 6 -1 The Communication Process Model Chooses Encodes the a message Chooses the message channel Considers the receiver Sender Receiver Considers the sender Provides feedback Decodes the message Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -6
Communication Terms • Message – What is communicated. • Encoding – Converting a message to symbolic form. • Channel – The medium through which a message travels. • Decoding – Retranslating a sender’s message. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -7
Choosing Channels • Channels differ in their capacity to convey information. • Rich channels have the ability to – Handle multiple cues simultaneously – Facilitate rapid feedback – Be very personal Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -8
Exhibit 6 -2 – Information Richness of Communication Channels Source: Based on R. H. Lengel and R. L. Daft, “The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill, ” Academy of Management Executive, August 1988, pp. 225 -232; and R. L. Daft and R. H. Lengel, “Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, and Structural Design, ” Managerial Science, May 1996, pp. 554 -572. Reproduced from R. L. Daft and R. A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Forth Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), p. 311.
Barriers to Effective Communication • Filtering – Refers to a sender manipulating information so that it will be seen more favourably by the receiver. • Selective Perception – Receivers in the communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics.
Barriers to Effective Communication • Defensiveness – When individuals interpret another’s message as threatening, they often respond in ways that retard effective communication. • Information Overload – When the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity. • Language – Words mean different things to different people. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -11
Communicating Under Stress • • • Speak clearly. Be aware of the nonverbal part of communicating. Think carefully about how you state things. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -12
Exhibit 6 -4 Emoticons: Showing Emoticons in Email : )
Electronic Communications: Tips for Writing and Sending E-mail • Use a subject line. • Use emoticons and acronyms sparingly for business communications. • Write clearly and briefly. • Copy emails to others only if they really need the information. • Sleep on angry emails. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -14
Nonverbal Communication • Messages conveyed through body movements, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and the receiver – Kinesics • The study of body motions, such as gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body – Proxemics • The study of physical space in interpersonal relationships Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -15
Silence as Communication • • • Defined as an absence of speech or noise Not necessarily inaction—can convey: – Thinking or contemplating a response to a question – Anxiety about speaking – Agreement, dissent, frustration, or anger Individuals should be aware of what silence might mean in any communication. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -16
Communication Barriers Between Men and Women • Men use talk to emphasize status, women use it to create connection. • Women and men tend to approach points of conflict differently.
Communication Barriers Between Men and Women • Men and women view directness and indirectness differently. – Women interpret male directness as an assertion of status and one-upmanship. – Men interpret female indirectness as covert, sneaky, and weak. • Men criticize women for apologizing, but women say “I’m sorry” to express empathy. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -18
Cross-Cultural Communication Difficulties • Sources of barriers – – Semantics Word connotations Tonal differences Differences in perceptions
Cross-Cultural Communications: Helpful Rules • Assume differences until similarity is proven. • Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation. • Practise empathy. • Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis.
Conflict Defined • A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. – Functional • Supports the goals of the group and improves its performance – Dysfunctional • Hinders group performance
Exhibit 6 -5 Conflict Intensity Continuum Annihilatory conflict Overt efforts to destroy the other party Aggressive physical attacks Threats and ultimatums Assertive verbal attacks Overt questioning or challenging of others No conflict Minor disagreements or misunderstandings Sources: Based on S. P. Robbins, Managing Organizational Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974), pp. 93 -97; and F. Glasl, “The Process of Conflict Escalation and the Roles of Third Parties, ” in Conflict Management and Industrial Relations, ed. G. B. J. Bomers and R. Peterson (Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff, 1982), pp. 119 -140).
Research Findings • Cognitive – Conflict related to differences in perspectives and judgments • Task-oriented • Results in identifying differences • Usually functional conflict • Affective – Emotional conflict aimed at a person rather than an issue • Dysfunctional conflict Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -23
Conflict Resolution • Two Dimensions: – Cooperativeness • The degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns. – Assertiveness • The degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns.
Five Conflict-Handling Strategies • Forcing • Imposing one’s will on the other party. • Problem solving • Trying to reach an agreement that satisfies both one’s own and the other party’s aspirations as much as possible. • Avoiding • The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict. • Yielding • Accepting and incorporating the will of the other party. • Compromising • A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -25
Assertive Forcing Problem solving Satisfying one’s own interests without concern for the other’s interests • Make threats and bluffs • Make persuasive arguments • Make positional commitments Clarifying differences to find mutually beneficial outcomes • Exchange information about priorities and preferences • Show insights • Make trade-offs between important and unimportant issues Compromising r Giving up something to reach an outcome (done by both parties) • Match other’s concessions • Make conditional promises and threats • Search for a middle ground Unassertive Trying to satisfy one’s own concerns ’ ASSERTIVENESS Exhibit 6 -6 Conflict-Handling Strategies and Accompanying Behaviours Avoiding Withdrawing from or ignoring conflict • Don’t think about the issues Yielding Placing the other’s interests above one’s own • Make unilateral concessions • Make unconditional promises • Offer help Uncooperative COOPERATIVENESS Trying to satisfy the other person’s concerns Sources: Based on K. W. Thomas, “Conflict and Negotiation Processes in Organizations, ” in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 3, 2 nd ed. , ed. M. D. Dunnette and L. M. Hough (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992), p. 668; C. K. W. De Dreu, A. Evers, B. Beersma, E. S. Kluwer, and A. Nauta, “A Theory-Based Measure of Conflict Management Strategies in the Workplace, ” Journal of Organizational Behavior 22, no. 6 (September 2001), pp. 645 -668; and D. G. Pruitt and J. Rubin, Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate and Settlement (New York: Random House, 1986).
What Can Individuals Do to Manage Conflict? • • • Problem solving Developing superordinate goals Smoothing Compromising Avoidance Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -27
Techniques for Managing Work. Related Conflicts • • Expansion of resources Authoritative command Altering the human variable Altering the structural variables Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -28
Factors That Lead to Personality Conflicts • Misunderstandings based on age, race, or cultural differences • Intolerance, prejudice, discrimination, and bigotry • Perceived inequalities • Misunderstandings, rumours, or falsehoods about an individual or group • Blaming for mistakes or mishaps (finger-pointing) Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -29
Tips for Employees Having a Personality Conflict • • • Communicate directly with the other person to resolve the perceived conflict. Avoid dragging co-workers into the conflict. If necessary, seek help from direct supervisors or human resource specialists. Source: R. Kreitner and A. Kinicki, Organizational Behavior, 6 th ed. (New York: Mc. Graw-Hill, 2004), p. 492, Table 14 -1. Reprinted by permission of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -30
Tips for Third-Party Observers of a Personality Conflict • Do not take sides. • Suggest the parties work things out themselves. • If necessary, refer the problem to parties’ direct supervisors. Source: R. Kreitner and A. Kinicki, Organizational Behavior, 6 th ed. (New York: Mc. Graw-Hill, 2004), p. 492, Table 14 -1. Reprinted by permission of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -31
Tips When Manager’s Employees Are Having a Personality Conflict • Investigate and document conflict. • If appropriate, take corrective action (e. g. , feedback or behaviour shaping). • If necessary, attempt informal dispute resolution. • Refer difficult conflicts to human resource specialists or hired counsellors. Source: R. Kreitner and A. Kinicki, Organizational Behavior, 6 th ed. (New York: Mc. Graw-Hill, 2004), p. 492, Table 14 -1. Reprinted by permission of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -32
Negotiation • A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them. – Distributive bargaining • Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose situation. – Integrative bargaining • Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win solution.
Exhibit 6 -7 Distributive vs. Integrative Bargaining Characteristic Available resources Primary motivations Primary interests Focus of relationships Distributive Bargaining Integrative Bargaining Fixed amount of resources to be divided Variable amount of resources to be divided I win, you lose I win, you win Opposed to each other Convergent or congruent with each other Short term Source: Based on R. J. Lewicki and J. A. Litterer, Negotiation (Homewood, IL: Irwin 1985), p. 280 Long term
Exhibit 6 -8 The Negotiation Process Developing a strategy Defining ground rules Clarification and justification Bargaining and problem solving Closure and implementation Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada Source: This model is based on R. J. Lewicki, “Bargaining and Negotiation, ” Exchange: The Organizational Behavior. Teaching Journal 6, no. 2 (1981), pp. 39 -40. 6 -35
How to Negotiate • Five steps to negotiation: – – – Developing a strategy. Definition of ground rules. Clarification and justification. Bargaining and problem solving. Closure and implementation. • Identify BATNA: – Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -36
Exhibit 6 -9 Staking Out the Bargaining Zone $400 $475 $525 Buyer’s aspiration range Bargaining Zone Buyer’s target point Seller’s resistance point $600 Seller’s aspiration range Buyer’s resistance point Seller’s target point
Getting to Yes • Separate the people from the problem. Work on the issues at hand, rather than getting involved in personality issues between the parties. • Focus on interests, not positions. Try to identify what each person needs or wants, rather than coming up with an unmovable position. • Look for ways to achieve mutual gains. Rather than focusing on one “right” solution for your position, brainstorm for solutions that will satisfy the needs of both parties. • Use objective criteria to achieve a fair solution. Try to focus on fair standards, such as market value, expert opinion, norms, or laws to help guide decision making. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -38
Summary and Implications 1. How does communication work? • Communication works through choosing the correct channel, being an effective listener, and using feedback. 2. What are the barriers to communication? • Errors arise from filtering, selective perception, defensiveness, information overload, and language.
Summary and Implications 3. What are the other issues in communication? - The big topics in communication are the importance of nonverbal communication and silence, gender, and cross-cultural differences in communication. 4. What is conflict? - Conflict occurs when one party perceives that another party’s actions will have a negative effect on something the first party cares about. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -40
Summary and Implications 5. How can conflict be resolved? – Depending on how a conflict is defined, it can be settled in a win-lose solution or a win-win solution. 6. How does one negotiate effectively? – Integrative bargaining tends to provide outcomes that satisfy all parties and build lasting relationships. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -41
OB at Work Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -42
For Review 1. Describe the communication process and identify its key components. Give an example of how this process operates with both oral and written messages. 2. Contrast encoding and decoding. 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of email? Of instant messaging? 4. What is nonverbal communication? Does it aid or hinder verbal communication? 5. What does the phrase “sometimes the real message in a communication is buried in the silence” mean? Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -43
For Review 6. What are the managerial implications from the research contrasting male and female communication styles? 7. List four specific problems related to language difficulties in cross-cultural communication. 8. What is the difference between functional and dysfunctional conflict? What determines functionality? 9. What defines the bargaining zone in distributive bargaining? 10. How can you improve your negotiating effectiveness? Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -44
For Critical Thinking 1. “Ineffective communication is the fault of the sender. ” Do you agree or disagree? Discuss. 2. Using the concept of channel richness, give examples of messages best conveyed by email, in face-to-face communication, and on the company bulletin board. 3. Why do you think so many people are poor listeners? 4. Assume one of your co-workers had to negotiate a contract with someone from China. What problems might he or she face? If the coworker asked for advice, what suggestions would you make to help facilitate a settlement? 5. From your own experience, describe a situation you were involved in where the conflict was dysfunctional. Describe another example, from your experience, where the conflict was functional. Would the other parties in the conflicts agree with your assessment of what is functional or dysfunctional? Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -45
Point-Counter. Point • Conflict Is Good for the Organization s Conflict is a means by which to bring about radical change. s Conflict facilitates group cohesiveness. s Conflict improves group and organizational effectiveness. s Conflict brings about a slightly higher, more constructive level of tension. • All Conflicts Are Dysfunctional! s The negative consequences from conflict can be devastating. s Effective managers build teamwork, not conflict. s Competition is good for an organization, but not conflict. s Managers who accept and stimulate conflict don’t survive in organizations.
Breakout Group Exercises • Form small groups to discuss the following topics: 1. Describe a situation in which you ignored someone. What impact did it have on that person’s subsequent communication behaviours? 2. What difference have you observed in the ways that men and women communicate? 3. You and two other students carpool to school every day. The driver has recently taken to playing a new radio station quite loudly. You do not like the music, or the loudness. Using one of the conflict-handling intentions, indicate how you might go about resolving this conflict. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -47
Giving More Effective Feedback • Relate feedback to existing performance goals and clear expectations. • Give specific feedback tied to observable behaviour or measurable results. • Channel feedback toward key result areas. • Give feedback as soon as possible. • Give positive feedback for improvement, not just final results. • Focus feedback on performance, not personalities. • Base feedback on accurate and credible information. Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -48
Supplemental Material Slides for activities I do in my own classroom Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -49
Effective Listening If you want to improve your listening skills, look to these behaviours as guides: 1. Make eye contact. 2. Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions. 3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures. 4. Ask questions. 5. Paraphrase. 6. Avoid interrupting the speaker. 7. Don’t overtalk. 8. Make smooth transitions between the roles of speaker and listener.
Nonverbal Exercise • Rank order in terms of importance for leadership: – – – – Extroverted personality Sensitivity to others Technical expertise Strong ethical values Concern for getting the task done Charisma Internal locus of control Power • Directions: Sit on your hands. Use NO nonverbal communication (gestures, facial movements, body movements, etc. ). Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -51
Nonverbal Exercise Questions • How effective was communication? • What barriers to communication existed? • What happens when nonverbal communication is absent? • What purpose does nonverbal communication serve? Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -52
Communication Questions • What types of difficulties have you experienced when communicating with someone from a different culture than yours? • How do you let the other person know you have heard what they are saying? How often do you do this? • Describe an example of communication breakdown. What led to the breakdown? Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 -53