Chapter 4 Syntax Cao Ning School of English

Chapter 4 Syntax Cao Ning School of English Language Longdong University

Aims l l l To make the students understand what syntax studies; To introduce some of the representative approaches to syntax especially the structural approach and the generative approach. To enable students to analyze sentences with different approaches.

Outline Definition l The traditional approach l The structural approach l The generative approach l The functional approach l

Introduction to Syntax l l What is Grammar? The part of the study of language which deals with the forms and structure of words(morphology), with their customary arrangement in phrases and sentences(syntax), and now often with language sounds(phonology): usually distinguished from the study of word meaning(semantics) The system of word structures and word arrangements of a given language at a given time. A body of rules for speaking and writing in a given language.

Introduction to Syntax l What is Syntax? l SYNTAX, derived from Greek, is made up of two morphemes l syn/(together) and / tax/(arrangement). Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of the sentences. l

Introduction to Syntax l In linguistics, the word SYNTAX refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a Language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. l Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a Language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.

The Prescriptive Approach l In eighteenth-century England, some grammarians lay down rules for the correct or “proper” use of English. Quite a few rules in Traditional Grammar are prescriptive. This view of grammar as a set of rules for the “proper” use of a language is still to be found today and may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.

l l (a) You must not split infinitives. (b) You must not end a sentence with a preposition. Some people make fun of such rules by saying “Preposition is not a word you can end a sentence with”, as in this case you have to end the sentence with a preposition.

The Descriptive Approach l Linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach and it is the basis of most modern attempts to characterize the structure of different languages.

The Traditional Approach l l l Key Points so far for The Traditional Approach Grammar and Syntax Noun categories Verb categories Difficult point: Distinguish concord(agreement) from government. Traditionally, sentences are assumed to be made of Individual words in a linear direction.

The Traditional Approach – – – Traditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation, therefore, involves a great deal of the study of the word, such as, the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in terms of subject, predicate, etc. These parts of speech and functions are sometimes called categories.

Traditionally, sentences are classified as declarative, interrogative and imperative. l l Declaratives are used to give information, and perform the function of statements; interrogatives are used to request something, and perform the function of question; imperatives are used to give instructions and perfom the function of commands. The declarative utterance “You’re going out” could function as a question or an order depending on the intonation patterns.

The Traditional Approach l The term category is also more specifically used for the defining properties of units like noun and verb. l And the interrelationship between the forms of the noun, verb, adjective, etc. concerning certain categories will be dealt with under the headings of concord and government. l Number, gender and case l Tense and aspect l Concord and government

The traditional approach Tense and aspect Simple present Present progressive Present perfect progressive Past perfect progressive Simple past Past progressive Past perfect Simple future progressive future perfect progressive Simple past future Past future progressive Past future perfect progressive

The traditional approach Concord and government l Concord a book some books; this man these men He speaks English. They speak English. l Government She gave him a book. She gave a book to him.

Mood l What we are essentially talking abut here is the subject of mood in language structure. One obvious way in which mood is signaled is by the inclusion of specific words such as please, possibly, kindly, frankly. But mood is also signaled through the syntax of sentences.

The Structural Approach to Syntax l l l The STRUCTURAL approach to the analysis of Language was started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in the beginning of the 20 th century. In a sense, all the linguistic theories after his are structural in that they all regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as is isolated bits. In this section, however, we shall only discuss one of Saussure’s main ideas and the American structuralist model of sentence analysis.

The Structural Approach to Syntax The structural linguists believe: l THAT a sentence consists of individual words one after another in a line (a linear structure). l THAT a sentence is made up of layers of word groups( a hierarchical structure). The words in a sentence form into word groups first. l The boy kicked the ball. The words are not of the same degree of closeness to each other.

The Structural Approach to Syntax l l l Structuralists believe sentences are not composed of sequences of words in a simple linear, additive fashion. Instead, they are composed of hierarchies of constructions. The sequence which a sign forms with those it is in a syntagmatic relation is sometimes called a STRUCTURE. To use the word in a more restricted sense, and the class of signs which are in a paradigmatic relation are sometimes called a SYSTEM. The syngamatic relation is nowadays also refereed to as HORIZONAL RELATION or chain relation. And the paradigmatic relation is also known as the VERTICAL relation or CHOICE relation.

The Structural Approach to Syntax l l l Syntagmatic relations and paradigmatic relations Saussure believes that, language is a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts: signified(concept) and signifier (sound image). And the relationship between these two is arbitrary. Linguists try to find the value of a sign from its relation to others and its position in the system. Saussure identified two principle types of relations: Syntagmatic relations and paradigmatic relations.

Structural analysis l l Syntagmatic (组合关系) Paradigmatic（聚合关系）

Syntagmatic relation l is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present

If the weather is nice, we’ll go out. l The relation between weather and the others in the sentence should be acceptable.

There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet. Ex. 4 -1 l a. The boy kicked the ball. l b. * Boy the ball kicked the. l c. * The ball kicked the boy.

The order of words is also influenced by semantic considerations. l l Ex. 4 -2 (a) The boy chased the dog. (b) The dog chased the boy. Whether (a) or (b) in ex. 4 -2 will be used depends on the meaning.

Paradigmatic relation l (Associative) is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.

The _____ is smiling. l l l As is obvious, verbs definitely cannot be used in this place. The most likely candidate is a noun. But there also strict constraints on the possible type of noun occurring here. First, it must be an animate noun, nouns like book, desk are not possible choices. Second, even within animate nouns, only those which have a semantic component of human are most naturally used with the verb smile. Trees, cats only smile in children’s stories. Thirdly, the noun must be singular to occur with is smiling, so nouns like boys, men are excluded. In other words, only singular human nouns like boy, girl, man, woman, student are capable of occurring in this context. And these words are said to be in a paradigmatic relation here. They can substitute each other without violating syntactic rules.

He didn’t come until it was quite dark. Example

(1) The _____ makes a lot of noise. (2) I heard a ____ yesterday. l l l Because all these linguistic forms fit in the same test-frame, they are likely to belong to the same grammatical category. Obviously, the grammatical category needed here is “noun”. However, there a lot of forms which do not fit the test-frames above, such as the words it, the car, a dog and Peter.

(3) _____ makes a lot of noise. (4) I hear ____ yesterday. l l l Among the linguistic forms which fit these testframes are it, the car, a dog, Peter, a new car, the scholar with an American accent, and many more. Again, it is obvious that these forms are likely to belong to the same grammatical category. The common label of this category is “noun phrase”. By developing a set of test-frames, we can produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language.

Immediate constituent analysis l This approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis. IC analysis is a hierarchical analysis showing the different constituents at different structural levels based on the distribution of linguistic forms.

Immediate constituent analysis l l l This notion was proposed by the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield in his Language, first published in 1933. linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions and may themselves also be constructions composed of smaller parts. Using the distribution of components and constructions, we can analyze a sentence— considered to be the maximum construction in syntax--- into a series of constituents--- units that make up their larger units next to them.

Immediate constituent analysis l l Constituent Any linguistic form or group of linguistic forms that appears at the bottom of one of the lines immediate constituent This refers to the two parts that are yielded after each cut. An immediate constituent can be further segmented until we obtain the smallest grammatical unit.

Immediate Constituent Analysis l l IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are. The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemes.

The technique of this approach l The technique of this approach is to show small constituents or components in sentences go together to form larger constituents. The constituents could be the subject and the predicate or noun phrases and verb phrases. These constituents can in turn be further analyzed into smaller constituents, such as noun phrases analyzed into an article and a noun. This process continues until no further divisions are possible.

(5) Poor John ran away. l l Bloomfield said”Any English-speaking person concerns himself with this matter, is sure to tell the immediate constituents are the two forms: poor John, run away”, both are complex form. The immediate constituents of poor John are …poor and John; and the immediate constituents of run away are ran… and away… Immediate constituent are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction. This construction may be a sentence, may be a word group, may also be a word. The last level of constituents is morphemes, known as ultimate constituents.

The structural approach Immediate constituent analysis A sentence does not only have a LINEAR structure, consisting of individual words one after another in a line; they also have a HIERAACHICAL structure, made up oflayers of words groups. l How to do it?

The Structural Approach to Syntax l CONSTRUCTION A: STENTENCE Poor John ran away. l CONSTRUCTION B: l Poor John l run away WORD GROUP … poor and John; ran… and away…

The Structural Approach to Syntax l l l CONSTRUCTION C: WORD A word may be analyzed into its immediate constituents: morphemes. e. g. Lovely {love}{ly} talked {talk}{ed} So the immediate constituent analysis is : the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents------ word groups(or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.

(6) The man bought a car. The man and a car, which are noun phrases (NP); l bought a car, which is a verb phrase (VP). l

The best way to show IC structure is to use a tree diagram l l The man bought a car

The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets l l l (1) a. [[Poor] [John]] [[ ran] [away]] (2) a. [the man bought a car] b. [[the man] [bought a car]] c. [[[the] [man]] [[bought] [a car]]] d. [[[the] [man]] [[bought] [[a] [car]]]]

The Structural Approach to Syntax l Now the question is that how shall we know where to make the cuts? The answer, or the criterion is substitutability. whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. In the case of Poor John ran away, Poor John can be replaced by John; ran away can be replaced by ran in terms of structure. Both are about somebody doing something.

The Structural Approach to Syntax l The advantages of IC is that the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, will be revealed.

The Structural Approach to Syntax The problems with IC: l Some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.

The Structural Approach to Syntax The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis l Annie whacked the man with an umbrella. l

the love of God l the love given by God l the love for God l

Now it’s time for rest!

Generative Approach to Syntax l This particular type of linguistic theory originated with American linguist Norm Chomsky. l This theory has undergone a number of changes ever since its first appearance in 1957.

Noam Chomsky (1928 -) l l l The innateness hypothesis Language Acquisition Device Evidence for Innateness Hypothesis

Noam Chomsky (1928 -) Five stages of TG Grammar: l The Classical Theory l The Standard Theory l The Extended Standard Theory l The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) l The Minimalist Program

Main features of TG Grammar l l l l Rationalism Innateness Deductive methodology Emphasis on interpretation Formalization Emphasis on linguistic competence Strong generative powers Emphasis on linguistic universals

Two concepts to Understand Competence A set of rules that have been internalized in a person’s mind Vs performance Any actual utterances a speaker makes in a particular situation

The generative approach Chomsky proposed a solution to inherent inadequacies of immediate constituent analysis that a distinction should be made between two levels of structures: DEEP structure and SURFACE structure.

The generative approach u DEEP structure the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relations between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object u SURFACE structure the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.

Surface Structure Sentences or phrases that a r e pronounced or written ?

? Deep Structure The structure that contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of t h e s e n t e n c e

The generative approach A: John is easy to please. l B: John is eager to please. l A: Others could please John. l B: John sought to please others. l

The generative approach 2. This problem comes into even sharper focus when ambiguous sentences are considered. Flying planes can be dangerous. In this sentence, the speaker may be afraid that an airplane will crash into his house or he may be afraid to take over the controls himself.

The generative approach Visiting relatives can be tiresome This sentence may refer to a time when the relatives come to visit or to a time when the speaker goes to see the relatives.

The generative approach 3. Similar problems must be dealt with in explaining synonymy---that is, sentences having the same meaning but different structures. John painted the picture. The picture was painted by John.

4. Still other structures are recognized as similar by speakers of English. The girl has brown eyes. the girl's brown eyes the brown eyes of the girl the brown-eyed girl

The generative approach o Transformationalists hoped to meet these challenges: 1) They proposed to describe the syntactic system shared by speakers of a natural language---English. 2)They insist on the absolute precision of description.

Transformations are done according to transformational rules. Transformations cannot change meaning. They can do four things: delete, copy, add and reorder.

Deletion “You will be quiet. ” is transformed into “Be quiet!” by deletion In “Be quiet”, “you” and “will” are assumed to exist only in deep structures.

You will be quiet! S NP Pron. VP aux VP VL You will adj be quiet

Reordering Example Tough Movement rule Move the infinitive after the “tough” words to the position immediately before the subject. John is easy to please. John is eager to please. To please John is easy.

Across: 当 across作 为 方 向或目标语状语 成为谓体的附加 状语时，在肯定 句 中 ， across可 以移至句首，如：

We walked across the field, carrying heavy equipment. Across the field, we walked， carrying heavy equipment.

但是在否定句中， 由于这类状语往往 是否定的焦点，所 以在否定句中， across引导的方向 或目标附加状语通 常都不跳出否定结 构范围之外，如：

They didn’t walk across the field, carrying heavy equipment. *Across the field, they didn’t walk, carrying heavy equipment.

当 towards作 为 方 向 或目标语状语成为谓 体的附加状语时，在 肯 定 句 中 ， towards 可以移至句首，如： Towards the fort, the soldiers marched.

但是在否定句中， 由于这类状语往往 是否定的焦点，所 以在否定句中， towards引导的方向 或目标附加状语通 常都不跳出否定结 构范围之外，如：

The soldiers didn’t march towards the fort. *Towards the fort, the soldiers didn’t march.

Go 在英语中go经常带起 一个方向或目标附加 状语和一个来源附加 状语, 如: He went to America from Japan.

当方向或目标附加状语与来源附加 状语同时出现时, 其中的来源附加状 语可以移至句首, 如: From Japan, he went to America.

但是在方向或目标附加状语和 来源附加状语同时出现时, 其中 的方向或目标附加状语不可以 移至句首, 如: *To America, he went from Japan.

Badly常作方式附加状语使用。方式附加 状语通常是信息的中心。如果方式附加状 语是动词的必具性状语，它就只能处于句 末的位置，如： They treated me very badly. *They very badly treated me.

在现在完成体和过去完成体中，我们可以在 第一个助动词之后插入一个延续性时间状语， 但是方式状语一般紧跟在live之后，如： He had for twenty years lived in poverty. *She had in poverty lived for twenty years. They live frugally. *They frugally live.

probably 通常位于作功能词的助动词和主要动词之或 位于主要动词之前，如： o She probably believed his story. o She would probably believe that story o They probably can find their way home.

但是在否定句中, probably 往往位 于被否定的助动词或情态动词之前 o o She probably never would have believed his story. They probably can’t finish the task in time. He probably isn’t a teacher. *They can’t probably finish the task in time.

值得注意的是，除be动词外， probably不 能紧跟在主要动词之后，如： *She believed probably his story. He is probably a teacher.

Visiting friends can be tiresome. S NP S’ NP Pron Vt VP VP aux VP NP VL Sb. visit friends can be adj tiresome

Visiting friends can be tiresome. S NP S’ N NP N VP VP Vt aux VP NP VL friends visit sb can be adj tiresome

addition The application of T-there insertion inserts there into the underlying string

Example A fish is swimming in the pond. is a fish swimming in the pond There is a fish swimming in the pond.

Copying According to Chomsky, the question tag does not exist in the deep structure. When the T-tag is applied, the subject of the main clause as well as the first auxiliary verb is copied on to the tag.

He is coming, is he? He is coming, is not he? He is coming, isn’t he?

The Phonological component It is the task of the phonological component to convert each surface structure into a phonetic representation

Semantic component The task of the semantic component is to analyze the deep structure of a sentence into basic semantic features and then to derive its semantic interpretation from the deep structure.

Chomsky himself has always been fairly vague about the way in which the semantic component w o r k s.

How do modern linguists differ from traditional scholars in defining “sentence”? Traditionally scholars often depended on the use of punctuation or a semantic criterion---the expression of a complete thought---to define a sentence. They look at the sentence as the result of linking words together.

Modern linguists define a sentence as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic form. It is a structurally independent linguistic form.

Two Aspects of TG Grammar Transformational Aspect Generative Aspect This means that a grammar must generate all and only grammatical sentences of a language. Chomsky proposes the idea of transformation which refers to a kind of process that transforms one sentence into another.

Components of a TG A Syntactic Component A Phonological component A Semantic Component

Syntactic Component the base the Transformational Rules The base contains rules for the formation of deep structures

The Base It is concerned with the generation of deep structures A set of phrase structure rules The lexicon: a full list of vocabulary items

Phrase-structure rules. PS rul e s a re c onc e rne d wi t he generation of deep structures. They contain a set of rules which set up the basic sentence patterns of the language. They are also called rewrite rules.

Phrase Structure Rules PS rule 1 S--->NP VP Ps rule 2 VP---> Vt PS rule 3 NP ---> Det NP N PS rule 4 Det --->the, a , any, etc PS rule 5 N --->boy, man, etc. PS rule 6 V --->hit, sleep, etc.

PS rule 1 S--->NP VP Ps rule 2 VP---> Vt NP PS rule 3 NP ---> Det N

S NP Det VP N Vt NP Det The N Vt Det boy studied the N N book.

S NP Det VP N V NP Det The man hit the N ball

Selectional restrictions These are the restrictions on the type of noun that can be selected with each verb. *The man hit sincerity. Preventing grammar from generating nonsense.

The lexicon is a full list of vocabulary items. Attached to each item is information about its word class, and the syntactic slot into which it can be placed. Hit V, + [……NP] Sleep V, -[……NP]

Selectional restrictions These are the restrictions on the type of noun that can be selected with each verb. *The man hit sincerity. Selectional restrictions can prevent many figurative usages

Absolutely作为强调语修饰动词时往往会 受到限制。它常要求它的谓体具有某种 夸张的含义，如： In her anger, she absolutely screamed at him. *In her anger, she absolutely spoke to him.

1. The tired farm-worker plodded home. 2. The horse ambled slowly. 3. They tramped forty miles in search of work. 4. The pompous official strutted arrogantly. 5. Couples strolled by lazily. 6. He sauntered through the town enjoying the sunshine. 7. He strode out vigorously and angrily. 8. He walked because the bus had gone.

To yearn for affection (long for with tender feeling, affection, etc. ) To crave for a drug( ask earnestly for; have a strong desire for)

(i) N [+ N, + Common] (ii) [+ Common] [ + Count] (iii) [ + Count] [ + Animate] (iv) [- common] [ + Human] (v) [ + Animate] [ + Human] (vi) [- Count] [ + Abstract]

The generative approach The phrase structure l l l NP Det N S Det + N VP the, a etc man, ball, etc V NP + VP V + NP hit, took, etc

S NP VP S’ VP NP VP V D N The girl who is smiling is a model NP D N NP

The generative approach The TRANSFORMATIONAL component

The functional approach Functional sentence perspective l l One of the main ideas of the Prague Linguistic Circle is that a sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side. Vilém Mathesius, life-long Chairman of the circle, held that apart from the analysis of a sentence in terms of subject and predicate from the formal point of view, there may also be a functional analysis in terms of THEME and RHEME. THEME “that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds. ” RHEME “what the speaker states about, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance” (Danes, 1974 ).

The functional approach l l The same analysis is also carried out in terms of COMMUNICATIVE DYNAMISM, CD for short, which was first used by J. Firbas (1964). By CD Firbas means “the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of communication”. In his view, theme is constituted “by the sentence elements carrying the lowest degree(s) of CD within the sentence”, and “need not necessarily convey known or such as can be gathered from the verbal and situational context”.

The functional approach l l The British born Australian linguist Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday has developed this linguistic theory As the name suggests, it has two characteristics: system and functional. The SYSTEMIC part comes directly from the first linguistics chair in Britain John Rupert Firth. At the risk of oversimplification, it means language elements form into systems. The use of language involves a network of systems of choices. The items in a system ar in a choice relation with each other.

The functional approach l l As we mentioned in the section on the structural approach, this idea is related to one of the two relations recognized by Saussure – paradigmatic relation, the other being Syntagmatic relation. It is characteristic of Halliday’s theory that more attention is paid to paradigmatic relations than to Syntagmatic relations, which is the main concern of Chyomsky. From Bronislaw Malinowski, Halliday has inherited the idea that language is a social phenomenon, and emphasizes the study of language in relation to the functions it performs.

The functional approach l l As an anthropologist Malinowski attached great importance to the social function of language. In his opinion, “Language, in its primitive function, [is] to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a counter sign of thought”.

The functional approach l l Language originally “was never used as a mere mirror of reflected thought”, which “ is a very far-fetched and derivative function of language”. “In its primitive uses, language functions as a link in concerted human activity, as a piece of human behavior. It is a mode of action and not an instrument of reflection”. Halliday also observed that the German psychologist Karl Buhler had a tripartite classification of language functions: representative, concerning the content communicated; expressive, relating to the psychological or moral attitude of the speaker; and appellative (vocative), relating to the influence of language on the hearer.

M. A. K. Halliday attached three metafunctions to language Ideational function l Textual function l Interpersonal function l

(i) Ideational function l In what way do we represent our experiential world in language? The function in which we conceptualize the world for our own benefit and that of others is called ideational function.

(1) The boy kicked the post. The process kicked is described as a material one------“doing verbs”---run, dress, climb l Actor---the boy l Goal---the post l Even though the sentence is transformed into passive voiced one, it remains true. l

(2) The man liked the new house. l l l The predicator has to do with feeling and thinking, any action is internal rather external---hate, love, know, think, understand Sensor--- the man Phenomenon---the new house

Mental verbs are different from material ones semntically l l ①The verbs of this kind do not form the present continuous, such as “the man is liking the house”; ② the verbs of this kind are sometimes referred to as stative verbs in that they describe a state or condition as opposed to material verbs which are dynamic.

(3) child is homeless. l l The process is relational in that its main purpose is to relate the two participants together---be, become, appear Attribute--- homeless Carrier--- child--- the person who is in that condition The relational process does not allow its verbs to form the passive: Homeless was being the child.

(4) The girl laughed. l l The predicator is behavioral--- cough, yawn, smile. Behavioral verbs have some smilarity to material verbs in that they describe physical actions but they are different in that the action is not performed on anything---* “A girl laughed boy” is meaningless. Behaver--- the girl Behavioral verb--- laughed

(5) The visitor said “Hello”. l l l The process belongs to a large category called verbal (言语动词)--- say, report, claim, question, explain. Sayer--- the visitor Target--- hello--- the object of the saying

(6) There is a girl over there. l l l It consists of clauses in which there acts as grammatical subject. Holliday terms this process existential. Existent--- a girl

Interpersonal function l Language serves to set up and main social and personal relations, including communication roles such as questioner and respondent, and to express the language user’s own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance. Ths function of language is called interpersonal function.

Halliday identifies two sorts of exchanges l l The first consists of demamds for, and offers of, goods and services of some kind. E. x. Give me a cookie. The second consists of demands for, and offers of, linguistic information. E. x. What is he giving her?

(iii) Textual function l l l Language makes links with itself and with feature of the situation in which it is used. This is what enables the speaker or writer to construct a text, and enables the listener or reader to distinguish a text from a random set of sentence. This function of language is called textual function.

we have to decide how to order the parts of the message l l (a) To make it clear to our audience (b) To emphasize, or make prominent, the essential elements of it.

Marked and unmarked uses l l Similarly the requiremetn to make our messages clear means that we normally try to ensure that items which are semantically close are syntactically close. Thus, (1 a) is more marked in structure than (1 b) because of the separation of the clause when we were due to leave from the noun phrase, the day.

Thematic relations l l The theme is the first constituent, and it denotes the strting point of the clause--- what is going to be about. Rheme---the rest of the clause--- the information that is new.

The functional approach l l l Systemic means language elements form into systems. The use of language involves a network of systems of choices. The items in a system are in choice relation with each other. Language is a social phenomenon, and Halliday emphasizes the study of language in relation to the functions it performs. He argues that there are three general functions of language: ideational (which is subdivided into experiential and logical), interpersonal and textual. And they are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity, mood and theme.

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar l We may call this the ideational function”. “Language serves to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles, which included the communication roles created by language itself—for example the roles of questioner or respondent, which we take on by asking or answering a question; and also for getting things done, by means of the interaction between one person and another.

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar l Through this function, which we may refer to as interpersonal, social groups are delimited, and the individual is n identified and reinforced, since by enabling him to interact with others language also serves in the expression and development of his own personality. ” “Finally, language has to provide for making links with itself and with features of the sit 6 uation in which it is used.

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar l We may call this the textual function, since this is what enables the speaker or wr 5 iter to construct ‘texts’, or connected passages of discourse that is situation ally relevant; and enables the listener or reader to distinguish a text from random set of sentences”

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar Along the line of 19 th century linguists, Halliday states that The subject, in its traditional sense, is a complex of four distinct functions, three in the structure of the clause: 1. actor (‘logical subject’): ideational; 2. modal subject (‘grammatical subject’): interpersonal; 3. theme (‘psychological subject’): textual; together with a fourth function which is the structure of the ‘information unit’: 4. given (‘psychological subject 2’): textual l

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar l l l When writing An Introduction to Functional Grammar in 1985, Halliday changed his view a little bit. He argues that the so-called psychological subject, grammatical subject and logical subject “have to be interpreted as what they really are —three separate and distinct functions. There is no such thing as a general concept of ‘Subject’ of which these are different varieties. They are not three kinds of anything; they are three quite different things” And he propose 3 s to replace the earlier labels by separate ones which related more specifically to the functions concerned, namely: Theme, Subject and Actor.

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar l In his view “sentence” is more a unit in writing, and he prefers to use the term “clause” as a basic unit of structure. Consequently, Theme is defined as a function in the clause as a message together with Rhome, and the grammatical structure they constitute is called thematic. “The Theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of the message; it is that with which the clause is concerned. The remainder of the message, the part in which the Theme is developed, is called in Prague school terminology the Rheme”.

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar l l l Subject is a function of the mood system, together with the finite verbal operator, in the clause as an exchange, while the rest of the clause is known as Residue. It is an element expressing the mood of a clause in the senses of the indicative, the imperative, and within the Subject plus Finite realizes the feature indicative and the absence the imperative. Within the indicative, the order of Subject and Finite is significant: the order of Subject before finite realizes the declarative, the order of Finite before Subject realizes the yes / no interrogative, and in a WH-interrogative the order is Subject before Finite when the WH element is the Subject, otherwise Finite before Subject.

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar l l l Actor is a function in the clause as a representation, both the representations of outer experience and inner experience. Our most powerful impression of experience is that it consists of “goings on”, or technically “processes”. Halliday recognizes six processes; material, mental, relational, behavioral, verbal and existential. The first three are the major ones, and the latter three minor. The MATERIAL process, also known as a process of doing, is concerned with the representation of outer experience.

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar l And Actor, as a representative of the function in this system comparable to Theme and Subject in the other two, is in fact only one of the important participants in this process. l The MENTAL process, also known as a process of sensing, is concerned with the representation of inner experience.

The functional approach Systemic-functional grammar l l The RELATIONAL process, also known as a process of being, is concerned with the relation between one experience and another the BEHAVIOURAL process is particularly concerned with phy 7 siological and psychological behavior, like breathing, smiling, dreaming. The VERBAL process may also be calle 4 d a process of saying in the broad sense, and covers any kinds of symbolic exchange of meaning. And the last 5 process, the EXISTENTIAL, is a representation of some 3 thing in existence or happening. These six process form a circle as follows (Halliday 1994 [1985]: 108)

Perfect understanding of the topic in this chapter involves much more reading of our coursebook and some referent materials on the Internet, both in Chinese and in English! Wish you good luck!