Chapter 3 The Writing Process The process of

Chapter 3 The Writing Process

The process of writing Audience analysis: Studying the needs, experiences, personality, and other aspects. Planning: Specify the purpose of your message. What information you need to give the reader to achieve your purpose, and in what order to present the information. 3. Drafting: Compose a first draft of your message. 4. Revising: Revise for content, style, and correctness. 5. Formatting and proofreading: Arrange documents in a standard format, and check content, typographical, and format errors.

Audience Analysis 1. An audience analysis identifies the interests, needs, and personality of your receiver so you can maximize the effectiveness of your message. 2. Determine the level of detail, the language to be used, and the overall tone by answering these questions:

Who is the primary audience? If you have multiple audiences, you need to identify the primary audience-the person whose cooperation is critical if your message is going to achieve its objectives-and your secondary audience-those who also are affected by the topic of the message. Even if you are able to satisfy no one else, try to satisfy the needs of your primary audience.

What is your relationship with the audience? If your audience does not know you, you have to establish credibility through tone and supporting evidence. Communications to superiors will probably be organized in a direct style, whereas communications to subordinates should attempt to develop a sense of collaboration.

How will the audience react? If the reader’s initial reaction to both you and your topic is likely to be positive If the reader’s initial reaction is likely to be neutral If your reader’s initial reaction is likely to be negative.

What does the audience already know? Evaluating the primary audience’s present level of understanding is critical to making decisions about content and writing style.

What is unique about the audience? Learn about the reader’s interests, demographic characteristics, level of formality expected, and the like. Use this information to structure the content, organization, and tone of the message.

Persuasive appeals are based on Ethos: Ethical appeal based on your credibility-who you are and how your audience perceives you. Used frequently by advertisers-as with celebrity endorsements. Pathos: Appeals to audience emotions. Used in “what-if” situations designed to make the audience happy, sad, or scared.

Logos: Logic Appeals based on logic-the most effective form of persuasion-by presenting facts (indisputably true), inferences (probably true), and opinion (possibly true). The more factual data you can bring to bear on your position, the more likely you are to persuade.

What would you do? You are aware that there are employees in your group who have not learned how to use the new software program adopted by your firm. They underwent training sessions but are resisting the new procedures. At the last training session to which they were to bring their questions, there were many gripes and complaints and very few questions. How do you handle the next session?

Motivation at Finagle A Bagel

Remember this about your audience No one is perfect. People need specific information. Most people are honest and reasonable. People don’t like to be “talked down to.” People want to know what they will gain by taking action. Most people are likely to react to your message the same way you would if you had received it.

Source: Data for diagram drawn from A. H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review, 50 (July 1943): 370-396. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Planning Purpose 1. The first decision you must make relates to the purpose of your message. If you do not know what you hope to accomplish by writing a message, then you have no way of knowing whether you have achieved your goal. 2. Most writers find it easier to start with a general purpose and then refine the general purpose into a specific objective-the response they want from their readers. 3. Having a clear-cut statement of purpose lets you focus on the content and organization, on eliminating distracting information, and on incorporating all relevant information.

Purpose of a routine request General: To determine whether the laser printer has the features I need. Specific: To get answers to four specific questions.

Purpose of a persuasive message General: To secure permission for my preschool students to tour a restaurant and have lunch. Specific: To secure permission for my preschool students to tour Salad Haven Restaurant and have lunch between 11 a.m. and 1 p.m. (its busiest time).

Content 1. The next step is to determine what information to include in the message. 2. The trick is to include enough information so that you do not lose the reader, yet avoid including irrelevant details that waste time and obscure important data. 3. Start with at least a rudimentary outline of your message.

4. A useful strategy is brainstorming-jotting down ideas, facts, possible leads, and anything else you think might be helpful in constructing your message. Aim for quantity, not quality. 5. Another strategy is mind mapping, or clustering, a process that avoids the sequential limitations of lists. Write the objective of your message in the middle of a page and circle it. As you think of points to add, simply pencil them in, linking them by a line either to the main objective or to another point.

Organization 1. The final step in the planning process is organization, determining the order of discussion. The result is an outline you can use to draft your message into its most effective form. 2. Classification-grouping related ideas-is the first step in outlining a message. 3. By differentiating between major and minor points, you line up minor ideas and evidence to support the major ideas.

4. If you expect a positive response, use a direct approach: present your conclusion first and then the reasons for that conclusion. If you expect a negative response, use an indirect approach: present your reasons first and then your conclusion.

Drafting 1. The most important thing to remember about drafting is to just let go-let your ideas flow as fast as possible onto paper or computer screen. Do not worry about style, correctness, or format. Do not expect perfection, and do not strive for it. 2. Separate the drafting stage from the revising stage. Remember that “writing is art” and “rewriting is craft”.

3. Writer’s block is the inability to focus on the writing process and draft a message. Some causes of writer’s block include procrastination, impatience, and perfectionism. There are several strategies for overcoming writer’s block.

Choose the right environment. Schedule a reasonable block of time. State your purpose in writing. Engage in free writing. Avoid the perfectionist syndrome. Think out loud. Write the easiest parts first. Avoid writer’s block Writing your first draft

a. Choose the right environment. The ability to concentrate on a task is critical. b. Schedule a reasonable period of time. If the writing task is short, you can schedule enough time to plan, draft, and revise the entire message. If the task is long or complex, however, you should not plan to work on it for more than two hours at a time. c. State your purpose in writing. Jot it down and keep it visible so that it will be uppermost in your consciousness as you write.

d. Engage in free writing. Write continuously for 5 to 10 minutes, literally without stopping, and then take a break. Read what you have written, and then start again if necessary. e. Avoid the perfectionism syndrome. The first product you generate is just a draft. f. Think out loud. Picture telling a colleague about what you are writing, and explain aloud the ideas you are trying to get across. Hearing your ideas helps sharpen and focus them. g. Write the easiest parts first. Getting something down on paper will get you started.

Procrastination Procrastination is a habit. A week or two before a deadline, try these techniques instead: Pretend your first draft is an essay exam. Set a timer, consult your outline, and write. Set small goals for yourself (e.g., prepare the outline, write first paragraph). Reward yourself for each completed goal. Imagine that you have to give an oral presentation on your subject. You have 10 minutes to get the main points across coherently. Begin!

Revising Revising is the process of modifying a draft to increase its effectiveness. If possible, put your draft away for a time. If you revise immediately, the memory of what you meant to say is too strong and may prevent you from seeing weaknesses in logic or diction.

Revising for Content Ask yourself these questions: 1. Is the content appropriate for the purpose I have identified? 2. Will the purpose of the message be clear to the reader? 3. Have I been sensitive to the needs of the reader? 4. Is all the information necessary? 5. Is any needed information missing? 6. Is the order of presentation of the topics effective?

Revising for Style 1. Read each paragraph again (preferably aloud), evaluating as you read. 2. Reading aloud gives you a feel for the rhythm and flow of your writing. 3. Have a friend read your draft, and use that feedback to identify areas that need revision.

Revising for Correctness 1. Editing involves checking for correctness-that is, identifying problems with grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage. 2. Editing follows revision because there is no need to correct minor errors in passages that may be revised or deleted.

Formatting 1. Letter styles. Block style is the simplest letter style to type because all the lines begin at the left margin. Modified-block style is also acceptable; the date and closing lines begin at the center point, enabling the reader to locate each part quickly. Simplified style is seldom used. All lines begin at the left margin, the salutation and complimentary closing are omitted, and the subject line and writer’sidentification are typed in capital letters.

2. Punctuation styles. Standard punctuation, the most common format, uses a colon (never a comma) after the salutation and a comma after the complimentary closing. Open punctuation style favors no punctuation after these two lines. 3. Stationery and margins. Specific guidelines are presented in the textbook for standard business stationery and appropriate margins for documents.

4. Required letter parts. Required letter parts include a date line, the inside address, a salutation, the body, a page heading, the complimentary closing, the signature, the writer’s identification, and reference initials. 5. Optional letter parts. Optional letter parts include a subject line, enumerations in the body, an enclosure notation, a copy notation, and a postscript.

January 19, 2008 Ms. Ella Shore, President Department of Journalism Mountainside College Great Falls, MT 59404 Dear Ms. Shore: Subject: Yearbook Advertising Thank you for thinking of The Book Mark when you were planning the advertising for next year’s yearbook at Mountainside College. We  4  2  2  2 Center page vertically and use default margins. Standard letter format

from taking a full-page ad, we are happy to purchase a quarter-page ad, as follows: The ad should include our standard trademark and the words “Welcome to The Book Mark.” The ad should appear in the top-right corner of a right-facing page. Our logo is enclosed for you to duplicate. I am also enclosing a check for $275. Best wishes as you prepare the fifty-fifth edition of your yearbook. Sincerely, Joseph W. Dye Sales Manager rmt Enclosures c: Advertising Supervisor  2  2  2  2  4  2

Formatting Memos 1. Memos can be typed on plain paper, on letterhead stationery, or on special memo forms. 2. Use side and bottom margins of 1 to 1?inches and a top margin of 2 inches. 3. When typing a memo on plain paper or letterhead stationery, set a tab 10 spaces from the left margin to align the variable heading information. 4. Double-space the lines of the heading, and leave 2 blank lines between the heading and the body of the memo. 5. Standard parts of the heading include TO:/FROM:/DATE:/SUBJECT.

6. Omit the salutation and closing lines, but use special notations (reference initials, enclosure notation, and copy notation). 7. Single-space the lines of the body of the memo, and double-space between paragraphs. 8. Long memos sometimes contain report-type headings as an aid to the reader. 9. The heading for the second page of a memo is identical to that for a letter.

Standard memo format MEMO TO: Max Dillon, Sales Manager FROM: Andrea J. Hayes DATE: February 25, 2008 SUBJECT: New-Venture Proposal I propose the purchase or lease of a van to be used as a mobile bookstore. We could then use this van to generate sales in the outlying towns and villages throughout the state. We have been aware for quite some time that many small towns around the state do not have adequate bookstore facilities, but the economics of the  2  Tab  2  2  2  3 Center page vertically and use default margins.

length of our stay to the size of the town and the amount of business generated. Please let me have your reactions to this proposal. If you wish, I can explore the matter further and generate cost and sales estimates in time for your next manager’s meeting. jmc Attachment  2  2 Standard memo format (cont’d)

Standard e-mail format

. Proofreading Proofreading is the final quality control check for the document. Whether you key the material or an assistant does, your name appears on the message, and any mistakes are a reflection on you. Begin by proofing for content errors and making certain the document makes sense. Then read the document slowly, checking for typographical errors. Finally, review the formats.

The proofreading stage is not complete until you have read the document through without making any changes. There is always the possibility that in correcting one error, you have introduced another. After the final read-through, you are ready to transmit the document.

Proofreaders’ marks

Proofreaders’ marks (cont’d) Sincrely yours, sp

Key terms audience analysis 受众分析 brainstorming 头脑风暴 drafting 起草 editing 编辑 free writing 自由写作 mind mapping 思维导图 organization 结构 revising 修订 writer’s block 写作瓶颈

Exercise-Proofreading April 31, 2007 Mr. Thomas Johnson, Manger JoAnn @ Friends, Inc. 1323 Charleston Avenue Minneapolis, MI 55402 Dear Mr. Thomas:

As a writing consultant, I have often aksed aud- iences to locate all teh errors in this letter. I am allways surprized if the find all the errors. The result being that we all need more practical advise in how to proof read. To aviod these types of error, you must ensure that that you review your documents carefully. I have preparred the enclosed exercises for each of you to in your efforts at JoAnne & Freinds, Inc. Proofreading (cont’d)

Would you be willing to try this out on you own workers and let me know the results. Sincerly Yours Mr. Michael Land, Writing Consultant [Enclosure] Proofreading (cont’d)

Excersice Identify the correct sequence of the steps in the writing process. a) drafting, brainstorming, audience analysis, formatting, revising, proofreading b) brainstorming, audience analysis, planning, revising, proofreading, formatting c) audience analysis, planning, drafting, revising, formatting, proofreading d) formatting, planning, audience analysis, drafting, proofreading, revising e) audience analysis, planning, drafting, proofreading, revising, formatting

Excersice Which advice about analyzing the audience reaction is correct? a) Regardless of the anticipated reader reaction, use the indirect approach. b) If the reader is likely to oppose your ideas, supply additional evidence and supporting facts. c) If the reader is likely to have a positive reaction, use little jargon and strong persuasion. d) If you expect the reader to react negatively to you, prove that your colleagues strongly agree with you. e) If you anticipate a neutral reaction, open your message with your strongest point.

Excersice What is the most important reason why you should determine what your audience knows about the topic of your message? a) You can decide on personal touches that show readers they are important. b) You can anticipate whether the reader's reaction will be positive or negative. c) You can gain the cooperation of your colleagues in presenting persuasive arguments. d) You can move through the steps of the writing process more quickly. e) You can decide how much jargon to use and what readability level is appropriate.

Excersice Which persuasion appeal is based on the reader's perception of the writer's credibility? a) ethos b) rhetoric c) pathos d) logos e) indirect

Excersice The message “To protect your most precious belongings, install Secure-All dead bolt locks,” uses what type of appeal? a) ethos b) rhetoric c) indirect d) pathos e) logic

Excersice Which form of persuasion is generally used in business communication? a) rhetorical appeal based on inferences b) emotional appeal based on feelings c) indirect appeal based on anticipated reaction d) logical appeal based on fact e) credibility appeal based on perceptions

Excersice Which of the following statements about content is not correct? a) Brainstorming is often an effective method to determine the content of your message. b) Mind mapping produces a visual outline that allows more flexibility than a step-by-step list. c) Start writing immediately and decide about content as you write. d) Determine the content after identifying the purposes and analyzing the audience. e) Many communication tasks require a number of decisions about content.

Excersice Which of the following correctly describes the use of brainstorming? a) Strive for quantity of ideas, not quality of ideas. b) Evaluate your output before you list your ideas. c) Organize the ideas into categories as soon as possible. d) Refine, delete, and combine ideas at the start. e) Arrange every idea in its proper sequence.

Excersice Which step is not a part of the organization process? a) grouping related ideas together b) matching the order to anticipated audience response c) differentiating major and minor points d) determining the most effective sequence of ideas e) mind-mapping ideas into step-by-step lists

Excersice An effective strategy for treating writer's block is to a) schedule brief blocks of time to prepare a draft. b) write the most difficult parts first to get them out of the way. c) strive for perfection now to save time during revision. d) select an environment in which you can concentrate. e) state your objective as simply as possible.

Excersice When you use free writing, you are a) allowing time to plan, draft, and revise a message in one sitting. b) brainstorming freely about a writing project. c) deciding how freely to revise a first draft. d) evaluating the results of your first draft as freely as possible. e) writing continuously for several minutes without stopping.

Excersice Which statement about revising is correct? a) You should revise at the same that you draft a message. b) Wait to revise the message so you will have some "distance" and can detect any weaknesses in logic. c) When you revise a message, you are checking content and style rather than editing. d) If you revise before drafting, you will remember the content you wanted to include. e) Time constraints may prevent you from revising every message.

Excersice Editing is the process of a) organizing the topics in a logical order. b) correcting errors in spelling, punctuation, and grammar. c) shortening lengthy sentences and paragraphs. d) ensuring that the purpose is clear. e) adapting the readability level.

Excersice One good reason to format documents according to accepted conventions is that a) readers will be distracted if information is not where they expect it to be. b) many executives now keyboard their own documents without assistance. c) the person who types the message is responsible for its format. d) you can edit more easily if the parts of a message are presented in consistent fashion. e) you can add reader interest by varying the margins and other formatting elements.

Excersice Checking to be sure that your document makes sense is proofreading for a) content errors. b) typographical errors. c) format errors. d) style errors. e) technical errors.

Excersice Explain how your expectations about the reader's reaction influence the organization and style of a message. Provide examples to support your explanation.

Excersice Why should drafting and revising be completed as two separate steps?

Excersice List the three major types of errors to look for when proofreading a document.

What is wrong with these sentences? There to busy with they’re report to be their for the hearing. I will except your advise, but the affect of doing so may bring alot of change. Your going to present you’re report first. Whose going to let us know who’s turn it is to make coffee? How much farther can we pursue this if its not past on through regular channels?

Answers 1. They’re too busy with their report to be there for the hearing. 2. I will accept your advice, but the effect of doing so may bring a lot of change. 3. You’re going to present your report first. 4. Who’s going to let us know whose turn it is to make coffee? 5. How much further can we pursue this if it’s not passed on through regular channels?

One-sentence summary Ask “Who does what to whom, when, where, how, and why?” Synthesize your answer into a single, informative, grammatical, and long summary sentence. Source: Angelo, T. & Cross, K. P., Classroom Assessment Techniques. Jossy-Bass, San Francisco, 1993, p. 183

Excersice-audience Reaction Read the following situations and decide what the audience reaction would be and whether a direct or indirect organizational plan would be better. Explain your answer.

As the manager of a small retail clothing store, you are preparing a memo to let the employees know they are getting a 50-cent-per-hour raise. Audience reaction would probably be positive; use a direct plan. The workers would want to hear they are getting a raise.

As the assistant manager of a hotel, you are writing to a customer letting her know that the jewelry she left in her room when she departed has not been found. Audience reaction would be disappointment; use an indirect plan. The woman would be disappointed to hear her jewelry had not been found.

As a newly hired advertising director, you are e-mailing the president of the company requesting a 10 percent increase in your advertising budget. Audience reaction would probably be somewhat negative; use an indirect plan. You would probably need to show the president how the company would benefit from the increased advertising budget. He or she might not be overly pleased to have a new person asking for a larger budget. (Some supervisors want information “up front”regardless of the message).

You are writing a letter to customers announcing a new produce that will be available in the store starting next month. Audience reaction would probably be neutral; use a direct plan. You are informing the customers about a product, not necessarily trying to sell it.

Excersice-ethos, pathos and logos You and a partner are working for an advertising firm. You have recently landed the account for a national tire company. You know about three appeals for persuasion : ethos, pathos and logos. You decide to write three television commercials for the tire company-each using one of these appeals. Explain how you might use each appeal in a television commercial for tires.

Excersice-audience analysis Assume you must write an email message to your business communication professor, asking him or her to let you take your final examination one week early so that you can attend your cousin’s wedding. A. Perform an audience analysis of your professor. List everything you know about this professor that might help you compose a more effective message.

Excersice B. Write two good opening sentences for this message, the first on assuming that you are a student who has missed class only once this term and the second assuming you are a student who has missed class six times this term.

Excersice-free writing You are the office manager for station WFYI, the nonprofit National Public Radio affiliate in Indianapolis. You want to buy as scanner to use with the three computers in you office. The scanner would let you input graphics into your computer documents and enter data without having to rekey it. You must wirte a memo, the goal of which is to convince the general manager to let you buy a scanner and related software. Think about ways you could use this equipment.