Скачать презентацию Chapter 13 Central Nervous System Parts Functions Скачать презентацию Chapter 13 Central Nervous System Parts Functions

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Chapter 13: Central Nervous System Parts & Functions of the Brain & Spinal Cord Chapter 13: Central Nervous System Parts & Functions of the Brain & Spinal Cord http: //www. emc. maricopa. edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/brain. gif

Learning Goals I. Coverings of the Brain and Spinal Cord Identify and locate each Learning Goals I. Coverings of the Brain and Spinal Cord Identify and locate each layer of the meninges Identify the important anatomical characteristics of the dura mater and the spaces between and around the meninges II. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Discuss the formation, circulation, and function of the cerebrospinal fluid

Protection for the CNS Meninges- 3 protective membranes 1 - dura mater (outermost)- “tough Protection for the CNS Meninges- 3 protective membranes 1 - dura mater (outermost)- “tough mother” 2 - arachnoid mater (CT-cobweb-like) 3 - pia mater (innermost, transparent, contains blood vessels, adheres to brain)- “gentle mother” CSF absorbs and disperses excessive mechanical forces

Coverings of the Brain Coverings of the Brain "The meninges PAD the brain. " Pia; Arachnoid; Dura.

Coverings of the Brain Cranial bones and vertebrae- outer protection Meninges- inner protection Coverings of the Brain Cranial bones and vertebrae- outer protection Meninges- inner protection

Anatomy of Meninges Dura Mater has 3 important inward extensions 1 - Falx cerebri: Anatomy of Meninges Dura Mater has 3 important inward extensions 1 - Falx cerebri: project downward into the longitudinal fissure (between 2 hemispheres) 2 - Falx cerebelli: sickleshaped extension that separates the two halves 3 - Tentorium cerebelli: separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum Falx cerebri

Spaces between & around meninges Epidural space- outside dura mater but inside bony coverings Spaces between & around meninges Epidural space- outside dura mater but inside bony coverings of spinal cord- cushion of fat and CT Subdural space- “under dura” space between the dura mater and arachnoid mater; small amount of lubricating serous fluid Subarachnoid space- under the arachnoid and outside the pia mater- CSF

Want a hematoma to be out not in…or brain damage can result Want a hematoma to be out not in…or brain damage can result

Protection of Spinal Cord Vertebral column (+ ligaments and muscles)- allows for flex but Protection of Spinal Cord Vertebral column (+ ligaments and muscles)- allows for flex but guards against direct knocks and blows CSF- shock absorber Epidural space- cushion of fat and CT (between the periosteum and dura mater) Nerve Tracts (Diagram)- Ascending and Descending Tracts Dorsal, Lateral and Ventral horns

Spaces around meninges Spaces around meninges

Cerebrospinal Fluid Flow Clear liquid renewed 4 -5 times a day Proteins and glucose Cerebrospinal Fluid Flow Clear liquid renewed 4 -5 times a day Proteins and glucose for E for brain cells Protects and nourishes brain and cord Produced by choroid plexuses =cluster of thinwalled capillaries (in lateral ventricles) Cerebral arteries help circulate the fluid Direction of flow- brain’s lateral ventricles 3 rd and 4 th ventricles up the back of brain down spinal cord up front of brain

Cerebrospinal Fluid or CSF Protection: the CSF protects the brain from damage by Cerebrospinal Fluid or CSF Protection: the CSF protects the brain from damage by "buffering" the brain, acts to cushion a blow to the head and lessen the impact Buoyancy: brain is immersed in fluid, the net weight of the brain is reduced from about 1, 400 g to about 50 g- pressure at the base of the brain is reduced Excretion of waste products: one-way flow from the CSF to the blood takes potentially harmful metabolites, drugs and other substances away from the brain Endocrine medium for the brain: CSF serves to transport hormones to other areas of the brain Also provides a reservoir of circulating fluid that helps the CNS monitor the body and contains nutrients. “The total volume of CSF is 125 -150 ml. Total production of CSF is about 400 -500 ml/day (about. 36 ml/min). ” ~20 ml during this class. # from your textbook: avg adult 140 ml, ~23 ml in ventricles & ~117 ml in subarachnoid space.

Fluid Spaces • CSF is found in: Midsagittal section of brain – subarachnoid space Fluid Spaces • CSF is found in: Midsagittal section of brain – subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord, – within the four ventricles of the brain, – central canal of the spinal cord. • Four ventricles: – Two lateral (1 st and 2 nd) – 3 rd ventricle – 4 th ventricle Third ventricle http: //faculty. washington. edu/ chudler/vent. html Anterior horn of lateral ventricle Interventricular foramen Posterior horn of lateral ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle Inferior horn of lateral ventricle

Hydrocephalus Hydrocephalus

Hydrocephalus Blockage of CSF circulation Can be treated in infants with shunts to drain Hydrocephalus Blockage of CSF circulation Can be treated in infants with shunts to drain CSF; flexible cranium gives to excess pressure Can cause ventricles to enlarge or subarachnoid hemorrhage, which leads to blood clots In older children, can causes brain damage or death http: //www. telegraph. co. uk/new s/graphics/2005/04/28/wviet 28 a. jpg http: //tier. cs. berkeley. edu/gallery/albums/ghana 05/IMGP 1551_001. jpg http: //neurosurgery. seattlechildrens. org/assets/images/hydrocephalu s-normal-non-normal-ct-scans_large. gif http: //uuhsc. utah. edu/healthinfo/images/ei_0433. gif

Choroid plexuses • Networks of capillaries that project from the pia mater into the Choroid plexuses • Networks of capillaries that project from the pia mater into the lateral ventricles and into the roofs of the 3 rd and 4 th ventricles • Glial cell (ependymal) releases CSF

Meningitis • Infection or inflammation of the meninges • Bacteria such as Neisseria meningitidis, Meningitis • Infection or inflammation of the meninges • Bacteria such as Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, or Haemophilus influenzae; viral and fungal infections • Fever and severe headaches; neck stiffness and pain

Symptoms of Meningitis Symptoms of Meningitis

Quick Check • Name three membranous coverings of the central nervous system in order, Quick Check • Name three membranous coverings of the central nervous system in order, beginning with the outermost layer.

Quick Check • Name three membranous coverings of the central nervous system in order, Quick Check • Name three membranous coverings of the central nervous system in order, beginning with the outermost layer. Dura mater Arachnoid mater Pia mater

Quick Check • Trace the path of cerebrospinal fluid from its formation by a Quick Check • Trace the path of cerebrospinal fluid from its formation by a choroid plexus to its reabsorption into the blood.

Figure 13 -5 Flow of cerebrospinal fluid in textbook • The fluid produced by Figure 13 -5 Flow of cerebrospinal fluid in textbook • The fluid produced by filtration of blood by the choroid plexus of each ventricle flows inferiorly through the lateral ventricles, interventricular foramen, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, fourth ventricle, and subarachnoid space and to the blood

Lumbar puncture • Withdrawal of some of the CSF from the subarachnoid space in Lumbar puncture • Withdrawal of some of the CSF from the subarachnoid space in the lumbar region of the spinal cord

Learning Goals II. The Spinal Cord Discuss the structure and function of the spinal Learning Goals II. The Spinal Cord Discuss the structure and function of the spinal cord Identify the major ascending and descending tracts of the spinal cord. Give at least one primary function of each

Spinal Cord Basics • Bundle of nerve fibers (40 -45 cm) long • Base Spinal Cord Basics • Bundle of nerve fibers (40 -45 cm) long • Base of brain to lumbosacral part of column • Flat cylinder only slightly wider than pencil • 31 spinal nerves branch from • Resembles an “inside-out” brain- butterfly shaped gray matter inside (gray matter =neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated nerve fibers; white matter= myelinated nerve fiber tracts)

Spinal Cord Terms Central canal- CSF fills this canal providing nourishment and waste collection Spinal Cord Terms Central canal- CSF fills this canal providing nourishment and waste collection Anterior fissure- deep groove along front of spinal cord Sensory nerve rootlets (dorsal) Sensory root ganglion (dorsal) Motor nerve rootlets (ventral) Spinal nerve Nerve fiber tract

Structure of Spinal Cord Structure of Spinal Cord

Nerve Tracts of Spinal Cord • Ascending Tracts- bundles of nerve fibers relay impulses Nerve Tracts of Spinal Cord • Ascending Tracts- bundles of nerve fibers relay impulses about bodily sensations and inner sensors like pain up the spinal cord to the brain • Descending Tracts- convey motor signals from the brain to skeletal muscles of the torso and limbs in order to bring about voluntary movements

Nerve Tracts • Figure 13 -8 Major tracts of the spinal cord in textbook Nerve Tracts • Figure 13 -8 Major tracts of the spinal cord in textbook and Table 13 -1 and 13 -2

Pain Control Areas Place in pain conduction pathway where impulses from pain receptors can Pain Control Areas Place in pain conduction pathway where impulses from pain receptors can be inhibited Substantia gelatinosa-gate - skin receptors

Quick Check • What are spinal nerve roots? How does the dorsal root differ Quick Check • What are spinal nerve roots? How does the dorsal root differ from the ventral root?

Quick Check • What are spinal nerve roots? How does the dorsal root differ Quick Check • What are spinal nerve roots? How does the dorsal root differ from the ventral root? Spinal nerve roots =Two bundles of nerve fibers that project from each side of the spinal cord Dorsal (posterior) nerve rootcarry sensory info into the spinal cord, unipolar, in small region of gray matter in dorsal root ganglion Ventral (anterior) nerve root- carry motor info out of the spinal cord; multipolar, in gray matter of the inner core of spinal cord

Quick Check • Name the regions of the white and gray matter seen in Quick Check • Name the regions of the white and gray matter seen in a horizontal section of the spinal cord.

Gray Matter: H- shaped rod of gray matter is made up of anterior, lateral Gray Matter: H- shaped rod of gray matter is made up of anterior, lateral and posterior gray columns; joined in middle by a band (= gray commissure)- made up of cell bodies of interneurons and motor neurons White matter: subdivided in each half into three white columns (funiculi)- large bundles of axons divided into spinal tracts

Quick Check • Contrast ascending tracks and descending tracts of the spinal cord. Can Quick Check • Contrast ascending tracks and descending tracts of the spinal cord. Can you give an example of each.

Quick Check • Contrast ascending tracks and descending tracts of the spinal cord. Can Quick Check • Contrast ascending tracks and descending tracts of the spinal cord. Can you give an example of each. Ascending- conduct sensory impulses up the cord to the brain (lateral spinothalamic tracts, anterior spinothalamic tracts, fasciculi gracilis and cuneatus tracts, spinocerebellar tracts, spinotectal tracts Descending- conduct motor impulses down the cord from the brain (lateral corticospinal, anterior corticospinal, reticulospinal, rubrospinal, tectospinal, vestibulospinal tracts)

Learning Goals IV: The Brain List the major divisions of the brain Identify the Learning Goals IV: The Brain List the major divisions of the brain Identify the major divisions of the brainstem and describe the functions of each Describe the structure and function of the cerebellum

Brain has 2 Hemispheres Left & Right sides are separate Corpus Callosum : major Brain has 2 Hemispheres Left & Right sides are separate Corpus Callosum : major pathway Right between hemispheres Hemisphere Some functions are ‘lateralized’ – language on left – math, music on right • Lateralization is never 100% 100 billion neurons and 900 billion glia 1. 4 kg (3 lbs) Brain attains full size by about the 18 th year, rapid growth first 9 years Left Hemisphere Corpus Callosum

The Brain Neurons have been around since the first few months of postnatal life. The Brain Neurons have been around since the first few months of postnatal life. Six main divisions of the brain: 1. Medulla oblongata (Myelencephalon) 2. Pons (Metencephalon) Brainstem 3. Midbrain (Mesencephalon) 4. Cerebellum (Metencephalon) 5. Diencephalon 6. Cerebrum (Telencephalon) Human brain http: //www. morphonix. com/software/education/sc ience/brain/game/specimens/wet_brain. html

Brain Structure Terms • • • Sulci = shallow grooves of cerebrum Fissures = Brain Structure Terms • • • Sulci = shallow grooves of cerebrum Fissures = deep grooves of cerebrum Gyrus = on surface of the brain, raised areas Folia = delicate, roughly parallel gyri “leaves” Vermis = central section of the left and right cerebellar hemispheres

Vermis Vermis

Fissures, gyrus, sulcus…oh my! Fissures, gyrus, sulcus…oh my!

Blood Supply to the Brain • 2% of total body weight- yet 20% of Blood Supply to the Brain • 2% of total body weight- yet 20% of blood • 4 -8 minutes of oxygen depravation brain damage or death • Blood supply from carotid arteries (side of neck) • Blood supply from two vertebral arteries (along spinal cord)

Circle of Willis • Ring of communicating arteries • Encircle the base of brain Circle of Willis • Ring of communicating arteries • Encircle the base of brain • Pathways to supply oxygenated blood

Midsagittal Sections Brainstem Inferior to Superior View http: //static. howstuffworks. com/gif/brain-brainstem. gif http: //www. Midsagittal Sections Brainstem Inferior to Superior View http: //static. howstuffworks. com/gif/brain-brainstem. gif http: //www. mult-sclerosis. org/brainstem. gif http: //www. waiting. com/brainstem. html

Brainstem Consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. Location: at the juncture of Brainstem Consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. Location: at the juncture of the cerebellum and the spinal column. The medulla oblongata lies right above the foramen magnum of the occipital bone. Functions: – Alertness, Arousal, Breathing, Blood Pressure, Most of the Cranial Nerves, Digestion, Heart Rate – Other Autonomic Functions – Relays Information Between the Peripheral Nerves and Spinal Cord to the Upper Parts of the Brain – Nonvital: vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccupping, swallowing, pupillary reflexes.

Medulla Oblongata Size: a few centimeters in length Located inferior to the pons by Medulla Oblongata Size: a few centimeters in length Located inferior to the pons by the horizontal groove. • Functions: – Involuntary reflexes, such as swallowing, vomiting, sneezing, coughing, hiccupping, and regulation of cardiovascular & respiratory activity. http: //images. encarta. msn. com/xrefmedia/sharem ed/targets/images/pho/t 012/T 012859 C. jpg Most vital part of the brain!! – Medulla oblongata & Waterboy: not possible. Horizontal groove • Origin of many cranial nerves. http: //www. injuryresources. com/MEDIA/Slide 24. jpg http: //www. movieactors. com/90 stars/ sandler-posters. htm

The Pons = bridge in Latin. Location: superior to the medulla oblongata and inferior The Pons = bridge in Latin. Location: superior to the medulla oblongata and inferior to the midbrain. Function: connect cerebellum to the rest of brain, and modify urespiratory otput of the medulla. Origin of 4 cranial nerves. http: //upload. wikimedia. org/wikipedia/comm ons/thumb/f/fb/Pons. jpg/200 px-Pons. jpg http: //www. injuryresources. com/MEDIA/Slide 25. jpg

Midbrain • Location: superior to the pons and inferior to the cerebrum. Most superior Midbrain • Location: superior to the pons and inferior to the cerebrum. Most superior portion of the brainstem. • Function: processes some auditory and visual information, pupillary reflexes and eye movements

Midbrain http: //www. mhhe. com/socscience/intro/ibank/0012 lll. jpg http: //web. lemoyne. edu/~hevern/psy 285/photos/midbrain. jpg Midbrain http: //www. mhhe. com/socscience/intro/ibank/0012 lll. jpg http: //web. lemoyne. edu/~hevern/psy 285/photos/midbrain. jpg

Cerebellum • Location: at the bottom rear of the head, directly above the brainstem. Cerebellum • Location: at the bottom rear of the head, directly above the brainstem. • Functions: 1. Works w/cerebral cortex (especially visual cortex) to produce skilled movements by coordinating the actions of groups of muscles. 2. Controls posture & movement. 3. Controls skeletal muscles to maintain balance. • Inputs: Receive inputs from much of the cerebral cortex but mainly from visual cortex and somatosensory cortex. • Outputs: To motorneurons, thalamus and cortex. • http: //www. neuroskills. com/images/cerebellum. jpg Arbor vitae http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cerebellum http: //learntech. uwe. ac. uk/radiography/Gfx/nervous/sectionthrucerebellum. gif

Cerebellum • Structure **2 nd largest part of brain More neurons than all the Cerebellum • Structure **2 nd largest part of brain More neurons than all the other parts of the nervous system combined! Gray mater in cortex; white matter in interior (arbor vitae = “tree of life”)

Cerebellum coordinating function of • impulses from the motor control areas of the cerebrum Cerebellum coordinating function of • impulses from the motor control areas of the cerebrum travel down to skeletal muscle tissue and to the cerebellum at the same time • Cerebellum compares the intended movement with the actual movement; then sends impulses to both the cerebrum and the muscles, thus coordinating and “smoothing” muscle activity

Quick Check • Name three major divisions of the brainstem, and briefly describe the Quick Check • Name three major divisions of the brainstem, and briefly describe the function of each.

Quick Check • Name three major divisions of the brainstem, and briefly describe the Quick Check • Name three major divisions of the brainstem, and briefly describe the function of each. Medulla oblongata-vital and nonvital reflexes Midbrain- pupillary reflexes and eye movements Pons-regulate respiration & other reflexes regulated by 6 th, 7 th, 8 th cranial nerves

Quick Check • What are gyri or folia? What are sulci? Quick Check • What are gyri or folia? What are sulci?

Quick Check • What are gyri or folia? What are sulci? Gyri- raised areas Quick Check • What are gyri or folia? What are sulci? Gyri- raised areas on cerebellum Folia- “leaves”, delicate and parallel gyri Sulci- furrow or groove

Quick Check • How does the cerebellum work with the cerebrum to coordinate muscle Quick Check • How does the cerebellum work with the cerebrum to coordinate muscle activity?

Quick Check • How does the cerebellum work with the cerebrum to coordinate muscle Quick Check • How does the cerebellum work with the cerebrum to coordinate muscle activity? 1 - acts with cerebral cortex to produce skilled movements by planning and coordinating the activities of groups of muscles 2 - helps control posture 3 - controls skeletal muscles to maintain balance 4 - coordinates incoming sensory info and acts to complement and assist cerebrum

Brain Evolution • When did the paths get crossed? (Sensory and Motor) Brain Evolution • When did the paths get crossed? (Sensory and Motor)

Learning Goals Identify the structure and function of the two major components of the Learning Goals Identify the structure and function of the two major components of the diencephalon Describe the structure of the cerebrum

Diencephalon Location: Between the cerebral hemispheres and above the midbrain. Structures: – thalamus, hypothalamus, Diencephalon Location: Between the cerebral hemispheres and above the midbrain. Structures: – thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland, the optic tracts, optic chiasma, infundibulum, posterior pituitary gland, ventricle III, mammillary bodies. • Functions: – Chewing, Directs Sense Impulses Throughout Body , Equilibrium, Eye Movement, Vision, Facial Sensation, Hearing, Phonation, Respiration, Salivation, Swallowing, Smell, Taste • http: //www. driesen. com/diencephalon. htm http: //biology. about. com/library/organs/brain/bldienceph. htm

Thalamus: Brain’s Relay Station • Large, oval-shaped pile of gray matter on each side Thalamus: Brain’s Relay Station • Large, oval-shaped pile of gray matter on each side of the brain • Relay station mainly- sensory information (except for olfactory information) has to make a pit stop at the thalamus in order to be relayed appropriately. • Filter out unnecessary sensory information and synchronize important sensory information. • Arousal, alerting mechanism. http: //distance. stcc. edu/Aand. P/AP/AP 1 pages/nervssys/unit 13/dienc eph. htm http: //learntech. uwe. ac. uk/radiography/Gfx/nervous/diencephalon. gif

Hypothalamus Below ( Hypothalamus Below ("hypo") the thalamus. Helps us control all of our autonomic (involuntary) functions For example- regulates our body temperature, hunger/satiety, hormonal output, and our sleep/wake cycle. Connection between psyche and soma. Connection between nervous and endocrine systems. Pleasure center for eating, drinking, sex. http: //medicalimages. allrefer. com/large/hypothalamus. jpg

Pineal Gland: Biological Clock • Aka-Pineal body = “Pine cone. ” • Located above Pineal Gland: Biological Clock • Aka-Pineal body = “Pine cone. ” • Located above the midbrain. • Produces hormone melatonin. • Thought to synchronize, or re- set, the circadian rhythm to the day/night cycle. • For example, when you travel to New York, it is three hours later there. You have to readjust your circadian rhythm to match the day/night cycle around you. • http: //distance. stcc. edu/Aand. P/AP/AP 1 pages/nervssys/unit 13/dience ph. htm http: //www. sirinet. net/~jgjohnso/modpinhypopit. jpg

The Anatomy of the Brain The Anatomy of the Brain

The Anatomy of the Brain The Anatomy of the Brain

Quick Check • What are the two main components of the diencephalon? Where are Quick Check • What are the two main components of the diencephalon? Where are they located?

Quick Check • What are the two main components of the diencephalon? Where are Quick Check • What are the two main components of the diencephalon? Where are they located? Thalamus and hypothalamus Diencephalon = “between brain”- located between the cerebrum and the midbrain (mesencephalon)

Quick Check • Name three general functions of the thalamus. Quick Check • Name three general functions of the thalamus.

Quick Check • Name four general functions of the thalamus. 1 - relay station Quick Check • Name four general functions of the thalamus. 1 - relay station for pain, temperature and touch sensation 2 - role in emotions- makes association of sensory impulse with feelings of pleasantness and unpleasantness 3 - role in arousal or alerting mechanism 4 - role in complex reflex movements

Quick Check • Name three general functions of the hypothalamus. Quick Check • Name three general functions of the hypothalamus.

Quick Check • Name three general functions of the hypothalamus. 1 - functions as Quick Check • Name three general functions of the hypothalamus. 1 - functions as link between the mind (psyche) and the soma (body) 2 - links nervous system to endocrine system 3 - pleasure centers or reward centers for primary drives such as eating, drinking, and sex

Quick Check • What is the pineal gland’s primary function? Quick Check • What is the pineal gland’s primary function?

Quick Check • What is the pineal gland’s primary function? Important part of the Quick Check • What is the pineal gland’s primary function? Important part of the body’s biological clock mechanism (secreting melatonin)

Learning Goal(s) Discuss the sensory, motor, and integrative functions of the cerebral cortex Compare Learning Goal(s) Discuss the sensory, motor, and integrative functions of the cerebral cortex Compare and contrast somatic sensory and somatic motor pathways

Cerebrum http: //us. i 1. yimg. com/us. yimg. com/i/edu/ref/ga/s/728. jpg http: //umanitoba. ca/faculties/medicine/units/anatomy/bmr/graphics/cortex. html Cerebrum http: //us. i 1. yimg. com/us. yimg. com/i/edu/ref/ga/s/728. jpg http: //umanitoba. ca/faculties/medicine/units/anatomy/bmr/graphics/cortex. html 1. right cerebral cortex 2. longitudinal fissure 3. cerebellum 4. frontal lobe 5. central sulcus 6. parietal lobe

Cerebrum • Cerebral cortex: 2 -4 mm of gray matter on the surface of Cerebrum • Cerebral cortex: 2 -4 mm of gray matter on the surface of cerebrum. • Important dividing lines: longitudinal fissure, central sulcus, lateral fissure, & parietooccipital fissure. • Largest and uppermost division of brain • Cortex has 6 layers of millions of axons and dendrites • 4 lobes named for bones that lie over them (front, parietal, temporal and occipital)

Occipital Lobe • Input from Optic nerve • Contains primary visual cortex – most Occipital Lobe • Input from Optic nerve • Contains primary visual cortex – most is on surface inside central fissure • Outputs to parietal and temporal lobes Occipital Lobe Visual Lobe

Temporal Lobe Contains primary auditory cortex • Inputs are auditory, visual patterns – – Temporal Lobe Contains primary auditory cortex • Inputs are auditory, visual patterns – – speech recognition face recognition word recognition memory formation • Outputs to limbic System, basal Ganglia, and brainstem Auditory Cortex Temporal Lobe

Parietal Lobe • Inputs from multiple senses contains primary somatosensory cortex borders visual & Parietal Lobe • Inputs from multiple senses contains primary somatosensory cortex borders visual & auditory cortex Outputs to Frontal lobe hand-eye coordination eye movements attention Somatosensory Parietal Cortex Lobe

Frontal Lobe • Contains primary motor cortex • No direct sensory input • Important Frontal Lobe • Contains primary motor cortex • No direct sensory input • Important planning and sequencing areas Broca’s area for speech • Prefrontal area for working memory Working Memory Motor Cortex

Frontal Lobe Disorders • Broca’s area – productive aphasia • Prefrontal area – lose Frontal Lobe Disorders • Broca’s area – productive aphasia • Prefrontal area – lose track of ongoing context – fail to inhibit inappropriate responses • Wisconsin Card Sorting Task

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task • Row of 4 example cards set out • Patient Wisconsin Card Sorting Task • Row of 4 example cards set out • Patient is given a deck of 64 different cards • Told to place each card under the one it best matches • Told correct or incorrect after each card • Must deduce what the underlying rule is. Correct! http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=r. IX 5 YTPt. KCs

Corpus Callosum • Major ( but not only) pathway between sides Medial surface of Corpus Callosum • Major ( but not only) pathway between sides Medial surface of right hemisphere • Connects comparable structures on each side • Permits data received on one side to be processed in both hemispheres Corpus Callosum • Aids motor coordination of left and right side

Corpus Callosum • What happens when the corpus callosum is cut? • Sensory inputs Corpus Callosum • What happens when the corpus callosum is cut? • Sensory inputs are still crossed • Motor outputs are still crossed • Hemispheres can’t exchange data

The ‘Split Brain’ studies • Surgery for epilepsy : cut the corpus callosum • The ‘Split Brain’ studies • Surgery for epilepsy : cut the corpus callosum • Roger Sperry, 1960’s • Special apparatus – picture input to just one side of brain – screen blocks objects on table from view Verbal left hemisphere Nonverbal right hemisphere

The ‘Split Brain’ studies • Picture to right brain “What left “What did “Using The ‘Split Brain’ studies • Picture to right brain “What left “What did “Using yourdid hand, Pick you see? ” saw. ” up what you see? ” – can’t name the object – left hand can identify by touch • Picture to left brain – can name the object – left hand cannot identify by touch ? ? I saw an Verbal apple. left hemisphere Nonverbal right hemisphere

Functions of the Cerebral Cortex • Cerebral localization: specific functions have a location in Functions of the Cerebral Cortex • Cerebral localization: specific functions have a location in the brain. • Cerebral plasticity: if areas are damaged, other areas compensate. • Postcentral gyrus: general somatic sensory area; heat, cold, and touch stimuli. • Precentral gyrus: somatic motor area; impulses travel down via the motor tracts and stimulate skeletal muscles. • Transverse gyrus of the temporal lobe: auditory associate region. • Occipital lobe: primary visual areas.

Quick Check • Name the five lobes that make up each cerebral hemisphere. Where Quick Check • Name the five lobes that make up each cerebral hemisphere. Where is each located?

Quick Check • Name the five lobes that make up each cerebral hemisphere. Where Quick Check • Name the five lobes that make up each cerebral hemisphere. Where is each located? Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal lobes

Quick Check • Name the basal nuclei, and describe where they are located within Quick Check • Name the basal nuclei, and describe where they are located within the cerebrum.

Quick Check • Name the basal nuclei, and describe where they are located within Quick Check • Name the basal nuclei, and describe where they are located within the cerebrum. 3 types= projection tracts, association tracts and commissural tracts Projection tracts- extensions of the sensory and motor tracts Association tracts- extend from one convolution to another in the same hemisphere Commissural tracts- corpus callosum

Functions of the Cerebral Cortex Functions of the Cerebral Cortex

Functions of the Cerebral Cortex Functions of the Cerebral Cortex

Motor Functions of the Cortex http: //www. brainconnection. com/medart/l/motor-cortex. jpg Motor Functions of the Cortex http: //www. brainconnection. com/medart/l/motor-cortex. jpg

Contralateral Motor Control • Movements controlled by motor area • Right hemisphere controls left Contralateral Motor Control • Movements controlled by motor area • Right hemisphere controls left side of body • Left hemisphere controls right side • Motor nerves cross sides in spinal cord Motor Cortex Somatosensory Cortex

Motor Functions of the Cortex • Frontal lobe. • Voluntary movement is not well Motor Functions of the Cortex • Frontal lobe. • Voluntary movement is not well understood. • Primary somatic motor area in precentral gyrus. Mapped according to the specific areas of the body it controls. http: //www. brainconnection. com/medart/l/motor-cortex. jpg

Sensory Functions of the Cortex • General senses: touch, pressure, temperature, body position (proprioception) Sensory Functions of the Cortex • General senses: touch, pressure, temperature, body position (proprioception) -primary somatic sensory area in postcentral gyrus (parietal lobe). • Special senses: vision, hearing, and other senses involving complex sensory organs. • Sensory inputs are processed and relayed to other parts of the brain. • “Homunculus” of the brain http: //cti. itc. virginia. edu/~psyc 220/kalat/JK 237. fig 8. 8. principle_area. jpg

Sensory info sent to opposite hemisphere • Principle is Contralateral Organization • Sensory data Sensory info sent to opposite hemisphere • Principle is Contralateral Organization • Sensory data crosses over in pathways leading to the cortex • Visual Crossover Left visual field Right visual field Optic nerves – left visual field to right hemisphere – right field to left • Other senses similar Left Visual Cortex Corpus Callosum Right Visual Cortex

Integrative Functions of the Brain Consciousness and mental activities – Reticular activating system (RAS): Integrative Functions of the Brain Consciousness and mental activities – Reticular activating system (RAS): reticular formations (in brainstem) receive incoming messages, relay them to thalamus, which in turn relays them to other parts of the cerebral cortex. 1. Arousal/alert system 2. Necessary for maintaining consciousness • Drugs, such as barbiturates, depress the RAS and induces sleep (as opposed to the effects of amphetamines). • Slow-wave-sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM): former is a dreamless sleep and latter is sleep associated with dreaming. • Altered state of consciousness can be produced by anesthesia and meditation. Disease and injury can cause a comatose state.

Brain of a Genius • http: //faculty. washingt • http: //www. echonyc. c on. Brain of a Genius • http: //faculty. washingt • http: //www. echonyc. c on. edu/chudler/ein. ht om/~steven/einstein. ht ml ml • Einstein's brain: 1, 230 • http: //www. cse. emory. g edu/sciencenet/misme asure/genius/research 0 • http: //www. npr. org/te 5. html mplates/story. ph p? story. Id=4602913

Language • Spoken and written words • Broca’s area (motor speech area): on the Language • Spoken and written words • Broca’s area (motor speech area): on the frontal lobe • Wernicke’s area (sensory speech area): on the parietal lobe • Left cerebral hemisphere contains these areas in about 90% of the population; in the rest, the right or both hemispheres contain them. • Aphasia: speech defect caused by lesions in the speech areas. – Damage to Broca’s area leads to a person being unable to articulate words, but can make vocal sounds and understand words heard and read.

Broca's & Wernicke's Areas http: //www. cerebromente. org. br/n 02/historia/areabroca. gif http: //www. molbio. Broca's & Wernicke's Areas http: //www. cerebromente. org. br/n 02/historia/areabroca. gif http: //www. molbio. princeton. edu/courses/mb 427/2000/projec ts/0008/normbrainmain. html

Emotions • Involves the limbic system, situated around the corpus callosum. • Cingulate gyrus Emotions • Involves the limbic system, situated around the corpus callosum. • Cingulate gyrus and hippocampus connect with thalamus, fornix, septal nucleus, amygdaloid nucleus, and hypothalamus. • Lets us feel emotions: anger, fear, pleasure, sorrow, grief, joy… • “Considerable evidence exists that limbic activity without the modulating influence of the other cortical areas may bring on the attacks of abnormal, uncontrollable rage suffered periodically by some unfortunate individuals” (p. 396). • Robots & human emotions: http: //www. ai. mit. edu/projects/ sociable/facial-expression. html

Emotions http: //cti. itc. virginia. edu/~psyc 220/kalat/JK 362. fig 12. 4. limbic_system. jpg http: Emotions http: //cti. itc. virginia. edu/~psyc 220/kalat/JK 362. fig 12. 4. limbic_system. jpg http: //www. lifesci. sussex. ac. uk/home/Martin_Yeomans /Teaching/biofound/emotion 2_files/image 001. jpg

Memory • Short-term memory and long-term memory: – Short: few seconds to minutes. Can Memory • Short-term memory and long-term memory: – Short: few seconds to minutes. Can be made into long-term. – Long-term: days to years. • Repeated impulses produces synaptic change. – Increase the number of presynaptic axon terminal or increase the number of receptor proteins in the postsynaptic neuron’s membrane. • Limbic brain (“emotional brain”) plays a key role in memory formation. • Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): repressed memories • Inducible memories? : Dr. Wilder Penfield in the 1920 s; temporal lobe of epileptic patients • http: //serendip. brynmawr. edu/biology/b 103/f 97/projects 97/Warren. html • Let's test your short-term memory! http: //faculty. washington. edu/chudler/chmemory. html

Cerebral Hemispheres • Left: Usually serves language function; dominates hand movements • Right: perception Cerebral Hemispheres • Left: Usually serves language function; dominates hand movements • Right: perception of auditory stimuli, such as melodies, coughing, crying, and laughing; spatial relationships • Both hemispheres communicate with the other via the corpus callosum.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) • Brain electrical potentials are measured as brain waves. • Four types Electroencephalogram (EEG) • Brain electrical potentials are measured as brain waves. • Four types of brain waves based on frequency and amplitude of waves: beta, alpha, theta, and delta (fastest to slowest) • Waves vary in different regions of the brain, in different states of awareness, and in abnormal brain conditions. • Used to locate brain dysfunction, identify altered states of consciousness, and establish death.

Use it or lose it http: //www. newhorizons. org/neuro/diamond_use. htm Use it or lose it http: //www. newhorizons. org/neuro/diamond_use. htm

Do we use only 10% of our brain? • http: //faculty. washington. edu/chudler/tenper. html Do we use only 10% of our brain? • http: //faculty. washington. edu/chudler/tenper. html

http: //www. stanford. edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/f_ab 16 limbic. gif http: //www. stanford. edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/f_ab 16 limbic. gif

Quick Check • Where is the primary somatic motor area of the cerebral cortex? Quick Check • Where is the primary somatic motor area of the cerebral cortex? Where is the primary somatic sensory area?

Quick Check • Where is the primary somatic motor area of the cerebral cortex? Quick Check • Where is the primary somatic motor area of the cerebral cortex? Where is the primary somatic sensory area? • Precentral gyrus, the most posterior gyrus of the frontal lob, constitutes the primary somatic motor area • Primary area for general somatic senses = postcentral gyrus

Quick Check • What does the reticular activating system have to do with alertness? Quick Check • What does the reticular activating system have to do with alertness?

Quick Check • What does the reticular activating system have to do with alertness? Quick Check • What does the reticular activating system have to do with alertness? Centers in the brainstem that receive impulses from the spinal cord and relay them to the thalamus and from the thalamus to all parts of the cerebral cortex; essential for regulating levels of consciousness

Quick Check • What is the function of the limbic system? Quick Check • What is the function of the limbic system?

Quick Check • What is the function of the limbic system? Quick Check • What is the function of the limbic system?

Quick Check • What is the function of the limbic system? Limbic = “border Quick Check • What is the function of the limbic system? Limbic = “border or fringe”- the emotional brain; functions to make us experience many kinds of emotions- anger, fear, sexual feelings, pleasure, and sorrow, etc.

Quick Check • Over how many afferent neurons does somatic sensory information usually pass? Quick Check • Over how many afferent neurons does somatic sensory information usually pass? • Explain why stimuli on the left side of the body are perceived by the right side of the cerebral cortex.

Quick Check • Over how many afferent neurons does somatic sensory information usually pass? Quick Check • Over how many afferent neurons does somatic sensory information usually pass? 3 pools of sensory neurons (primary, secondary and tertiary) • Explain why stimuli on the left side of the body are perceived by the right side of the cerebral cortex. Sensory pathways in the cerebral cortex are crossed pathways (each side of the brain registers sensations from the opposite side of body); axon of a secondary sensory neuron crosses at some level in its ascent to the thalamus

Quick Check • What is the “principle of final common path” as it pertains Quick Check • What is the “principle of final common path” as it pertains to somatic motor pathways? • Distinguish between pyramidal and extrapyramidal pathways.

Quick Check • What is the “principle of final common path” as it pertains Quick Check • What is the “principle of final common path” as it pertains to somatic motor pathways? “only one final common path-namely, each single motor neuron from the anterior gray horn of the spinal cord- conducts impulses to a specific motor unit within a skeletal muscle” • Distinguish between pyramidal and extrapyramidal pathways. Pyramidal- fibers that come together in the medulla to form the pyramids Extrapyramidal-more complex, consist of all motor tracts from the brain to the spinal cord anterior horn motor neurons except the corticospinal tracts

http: //www. neurosurgery. ufl. edu/Images/Pit. gif http: //www. neurosurgery. ufl. edu/Images/Pit. gif

http: //info. med. yale. edu/caim/cnerves/ http: //faculty. washington. edu/chudler/cranial. html http: //info. med. yale. edu/caim/cnerves/ http: //faculty. washington. edu/chudler/cranial. html

The Brain Disorders and Diseases: A Look at Strokes, Alzheimer’s Disease, and Mad Cow The Brain Disorders and Diseases: A Look at Strokes, Alzheimer’s Disease, and Mad Cow Disease

Strokes • 1. • About 700, 000 Americans will have a • stroke this Strokes • 1. • About 700, 000 Americans will have a • stroke this year. The vessel clogs within (ischemic stroke). 2. • Every 45 seconds, someone in America has a stroke. • Stroke is our nation's No. 3 killer and a leading cause of severe, long-term disability Blood flow to the brain tissue can be hampered in two ways: The vessel ruptures, causing blood to leak into the brain (hemorrhagic stroke). Ischemic stroke accounts for about 83%. It results from an obstruction of a blood vessel, typically a blood clot. These are called a cerebral thrombus or cerebral embolism. • Hemorrhagic stroke accounts for about 17% of stroke cases. It results from a weakened vessel that ruptures and bleeds into the surrounding brain. The blood accumulates and compresses the surrounding brain tissue. • Leads to death of brain cells. • 80% of strokes are preventable

Stroke Warning Signs · Sudden numbness or weakness of the face, arm or leg, Stroke Warning Signs · Sudden numbness or weakness of the face, arm or leg, especially on one side of the body · Sudden confusion, trouble speaking or understanding · Sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes · Sudden trouble walking, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination · Sudden, severe headache with no known cause http: //www. ahaf. org/hrtstrok/about/stroke. Embolism. Border. jpg http: //www. strokecenter. org/pat/ais. htm

Transient Ischemic Attacks: “Warning Strokes” • Transient ischemic attacks, also called TIAs, are minor Transient Ischemic Attacks: “Warning Strokes” • Transient ischemic attacks, also called TIAs, are minor or warning strokes. • TIAs have similar symptoms as ischemic strokes and the typical stroke warning signs develop. – However, the obstruction occurs for a short time and tends to resolve itself. • Even though the symptoms disappear after a short time, TIAs are strong indicators of a possible major stroke.

Stroke Diagnosis · CT (Computed Tomography) scan or CAT scan is a key imaging Stroke Diagnosis · CT (Computed Tomography) scan or CAT scan is a key imaging test. It uses radiation to create a picture of the brain. It's usually one of the first tests given to patients suspected of stroke. CT test results give valuable information about the cause of stroke and the location and extent of brain injury. · Blood flow tests show any problem that may cause changes in blood flow to the brain. This test is often done using ultrasound or angiography. Usually performed after CT scan. · MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses a large magnetic field to produce an image of the brain. Like the CT scan, it shows the location and extent of brain injury. The image produced by MRI is sharper and more detailed than a CT scan, so it's often used to diagnose small, deep injuries. · In an EEG, small metal discs (electrodes) are placed on a person's scalp to pick up electrical impulses or brain waves. · An Evoked Response test measures how the brain handles different sensory information. Electrodes record electrical impulses related to hearing, body sensation or vision.

http: //www. ukb. de/de/klinikeninstitute/neuro/img/leistungsspektrum 3 -1. jpg EEG http: //www. meddean. luc. edu/lumen/Med. Ed/Radi http: //www. ukb. de/de/klinikeninstitute/neuro/img/leistungsspektrum 3 -1. jpg EEG http: //www. meddean. luc. edu/lumen/Med. Ed/Radi o/curriculum/Neuroscience/MRI_sagittala. jpg http: //www. ne. jp/asahi/ueda/stroke/ag-ap 1. jpg Angiography http: //www. theuniversityhospital. com/s troke/images/diagnosis/mri. jpg http: //www. faqs. org/health/images/uchr_09_img 0995. jpg CAT scan MRIs

• Treatment: Ischemic Quick treatment is vitally important. • Ischemic stroke is treated • Treatment: Ischemic Quick treatment is vitally important. • Ischemic stroke is treated by removing obstruction and restoring blood flow to the brain. • Acute Treatment – Clot-busters, e. g. , t. PA (tissue plasminogen activator): must be administered within a three-hour window from the onset of symptoms to work best. Generally, only 3 to 5% of those who suffer a stroke reach the hospital in time to be considered for this treatment. • Preventative Treatment – Anticoagulants/Antiplatelets: Antiplatelet agents such as aspirin and anticoagulants such as warfarin interfere with the blood's ability to clot. – Carotid Endarterectomy: A procedure in which blood vessel blockage is surgically removed from the carotid artery.

Treatment: Hemorraghic · Surgical Intervention: either place a metal clip at the base of Treatment: Hemorraghic · Surgical Intervention: either place a metal clip at the base of the aneurysm or remove the abnormal vessels. · Endovascular Procedures, e. g. , "coils": less invasive and involve the use of a catheter introduced through a major artery in the leg or arm, guided to the aneurysm where it deposits a mechanical agent, such as a coil, to prevent rupture.

Hemispheric Effects of Stroke The effects of a stroke depend on a number of Hemispheric Effects of Stroke The effects of a stroke depend on a number of factors including the location of the obstruction and how much brain tissue is affected. However, because one side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body, a stroke affecting one side will result in neurological complications on the side of the body if affects: • Right Brain • Left Brain If the stroke occurs in the brain's If the stroke occurs in the left side right side, the left side of the body of the brain, the right side of the (and the right side of the face) will body (and the left side of the face) be affected, which could produce will be affected, producing some or any or all of the following: – Paralysis on the left side of the body – Paralysis on the right side of the body – Vision problems – Speech/language problems – Quick, inquisitive behavior – Slow, cautious behavior – Memory loss

Risk Factors for Stroke: Uncontrollable • Increasing age: people of all ages, including children, Risk Factors for Stroke: Uncontrollable • Increasing age: people of all ages, including children, have strokes. But the older you are, the greater your risk for stroke. • Sex (gender): stroke is more common in men than in women. In most age groups, more men than women will have a stroke in a given year. However, women account for more than half of all stroke deaths. Women who are pregnant have a higher stroke risk. So do women taking birth control pills who also smoke or have high blood pressure or other risk factors. • Heredity and race: risk is greater if a parent, grandparent, sister or brother has had a stroke. African Americans have a much higher risk of death from a stroke than Caucasians do. This is partly because blacks have higher risks of high blood pressure, diabetes and obesity. • Prior stroke or heart attack: someone who has had a stroke is at much higher risk of having another one. If you've had a heart attack, you're at higher risk of having a stroke, too.

Risk Factors for Stroke: Controllable and Treatable • High blood pressure: high blood pressure Risk Factors for Stroke: Controllable and Treatable • High blood pressure: high blood pressure (140/90 mm Hg or higher) is the most important risk factor for stroke. • Tobacco use: cigarette smoking is a major, preventable risk factor for stroke. The nicotine and carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke reduce the amount of oxygen in your blood. They also damage the walls of blood vessels, making clots more likely to form. Using some kinds of birth control pills combined with smoking cigarettes greatly increases stroke risk. • Diabetes mellitus: having diabetes increases a person's risk of stroke. Many people with diabetes also have high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol and are overweight. This increases their risk even more. • Carotid or other artery disease: carotid arteries in your neck supply blood to your brain. A carotid artery narrowed by fatty deposits from atherosclerosis (plaque buildups in artery walls) may become blocked by a blood clot. Carotid artery disease is also called carotid artery stenosis.

Risk Factors for Stroke: Controllable and Treatable (Cont. ) • Peripheral artery disease: increases Risk Factors for Stroke: Controllable and Treatable (Cont. ) • Peripheral artery disease: increases the risk of carotid artery disease, which raises their risk of stroke. Peripheral artery disease is the narrowing of blood vessels carrying blood to leg and arm muscles. It's caused by fatty buildups of plaque in artery walls. • Atrial fibrillation: heart rhythm disorder raises the risk for stroke. The heart's upper chambers quiver instead of beating effectively, which can let the blood pool and clot. If a clot breaks off, enters the bloodstream and lodges in an artery leading to the brain, a stroke results. • Other heart disease: coronary heart disease or heart failure increases the risk of stroke. Dilated cardiomyopathy (an enlarged heart), heart valve disease and some types of congenital heart defects also raise the risk of stroke. • Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs): "warning strokes" that produce stroke-like symptoms but no lasting damage. Recognizing and treating TIAs can reduce your risk of a major stroke.

Risk Factors for Stroke: Controllable and Treatable (Cont. ) • Certain blood disorders: a Risk Factors for Stroke: Controllable and Treatable (Cont. ) • Certain blood disorders: a high red blood cell count thickens the blood and makes clots more likely. Doctors may treat this problem by removing blood cells or prescribing "blood thinners. ” • Sickle cell disease (also called sickle cell anemia): a genetic disorder that mainly affects African Americans. "Sickled" red blood cells are less able to carry oxygen to the body's tissues and organs. They also tend to stick to blood vessel walls, which can block arteries to the brain and cause a stroke. • High blood cholesterol: a high level of total cholesterol in the blood (240 mg/d. L or higher) is a major risk factor for heart disease, which raises your risk of stroke. Recent studies show that high levels of LDL ("bad") cholesterol (greater than 100 mg/d. L) and triglycerides (blood fats, 150 mg/d. L or higher) increase the risk of stroke in people with previous coronary heart disease, ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA). Low levels (less than 40 mg/d. L) of HDL ("good") cholesterol also may raise stroke risk.

Prevention of Strokes Stroke Prevention Guidelines: 1. Know your blood pressure. 2. Find out Prevention of Strokes Stroke Prevention Guidelines: 1. Know your blood pressure. 2. Find out if you have atrial fibrillation. 3. If you smoke, stop. 4. If you drink alcohol, do so in moderation. 5. Find out if you have high cholesterol 6. If you are diabetic. . . 7. Exercise. 8. Enjoy a lower sodium (salt), lower fat diet. 9. Circulation (movement of the blood through the heart and blood vessels) problems. 10. Know the Symptoms of Stroke. • http: //www. stroke. org/site/Page. Server? pagename=PREVENT

Alzheimer's Disease Dr. Alois Alzheimer, a German doctor, diagnosed Alzheimer's disease in 1906 http: Alzheimer's Disease Dr. Alois Alzheimer, a German doctor, diagnosed Alzheimer's disease in 1906 http: //nihseniorhealth. gov/alzheimersdiseas e/defined/dralzheimer_crop_popup. html

Alzheimer’s Disease • 4. 5 millions Americans (2000) • Beta-amyloid (BAY-tuh AM-uh-loyd) is a Alzheimer’s Disease • 4. 5 millions Americans (2000) • Beta-amyloid (BAY-tuh AM-uh-loyd) is a small, sticky protein fragment that tends to clump together in the brain. (its accumulation may be the key factor that damages brain cells in Alzheimer’s disease. ) • Risk factors: age and family history • A person with Alzheimer’s disease will live an average of eight years and as many as 20 years or more from the onset of symptoms. 6 Dementia: decline in thinking skills. Common symptoms: gradual loss of memory, problems with reasoning or judgment, disorientation, difficulty in learning, loss of language skills, and decline in the ability to perform routine tasks. • Also possible: changes in personalities and behavioral problems, such as agitation, anxiety, delusions, and hallucinations. Amyloid plaques (pronounced AM i loyd) = clumps of protein fragments that accumulate outside of cells. Neurofibrillary tangles (pronounced NUR o FI bri lair ee) =lumps of altered proteins inside cells. • •

Alzheimer’s Disease Alzheimer’s Disease

How the Brain and Nerve Cells Change During Alzheimer's Disease Video: http: //nihsenio rhealth. How the Brain and Nerve Cells Change During Alzheimer's Disease Video: http: //nihsenio rhealth. gov/al zheimersdisea se/defined/06. html http: //www. ahaf. org/alzdis/about/Brain_Neurons_AD_Normal. htm

10 Warning Signs of Alzheimer’s • 1. Memory loss. Earliest signs-forgetting recently learned information, 10 Warning Signs of Alzheimer’s • 1. Memory loss. Earliest signs-forgetting recently learned information, those with dementia will forget such things more often and not remember them later. • 2. Difficulty performing familiar tasks- find it hard to complete everyday tasks that are so familiar we usually do not think about how to do them, for example- not knowing the steps for preparing a meal, using a household appliance, or participating in a lifelong hobby. • 3. Problems with language- forgets simple words or substitutes unusual words, making his or her speech or writing hard to understand. If a person with Alzheimer’s is unable to find his or her toothbrush, for example, the individual may ask for “that thing for my mouth. ” • 4. Disorientation to time and place. It’s normal to forget the day of the week or where you’re going. But people with Alzheimer’s disease can become lost on their own street, forget where they are and how they got there, and not know how to get back home.

10 Warning Signs (Cont. ) • 5. Poor or decreased judgment -may dress without 10 Warning Signs (Cont. ) • 5. Poor or decreased judgment -may dress without regard to the weather, wearing several shirts or blouses on a warm day or very little clothing in cold weather, often show poor judgment about money, giving away large amounts of money to telemarketers or paying for home repairs or products they don’t need. • 6. Problems with abstract thinking. Balancing a checkbook may be hard when the task is more complicated than usual, could forget completely what the numbers are and what needs to be done with them. • 7. Misplacing things- may put things in unusual places: an iron in the freezer or a wristwatch in the sugar bowl. • 8. Changes in mood or behavior- can show rapid mood swings—from calm to tears to anger—for no apparent reason. • 9. Changes in personality- becoming extremely confused, suspicious, fearful, or dependent on a family member. • 10. Loss of initiative- may become very passive, sitting in front of the television for hours, sleeping more than usual, or not wanting to do usual activities.

Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease Stage 1: No cognitive impairment • Unimpaired individuals experience no Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease Stage 1: No cognitive impairment • Unimpaired individuals experience no memory problems and none are evident to a health care professional during a medical interview. Stage 2: Very mild cognitive decline • Individuals at this stage feel as if they have memory lapses, especially in forgetting familiar words or names or the location of keys, eyeglasses, or other everyday objects. But these problems are not evident during a medical examination or apparent to friends, family, or coworkers.

Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) Stage 3: Mild cognitive decline • Friends, family, Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) Stage 3: Mild cognitive decline • Friends, family, or coworkers begin to notice deficiencies. Problems with memory or concentration may be measurable in clinical testing or discernible during a detailed medical interview. Common difficulties include: – Word- or name-finding problems noticeable to family or close associates. – Decreased ability to remember names when introduced to new people. – Performance issues in social or work settings noticeable to family, friends, or coworkers. – Reading a passage and retaining little material. – Losing or misplacing a valuable object. – Decline in ability to plan or organize.

Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) Stage 4: Moderate cognitive decline (mild or early-stage Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) Stage 4: Moderate cognitive decline (mild or early-stage Alzheimer's disease) • At this stage, a careful medical interview detects clear-cut deficiencies in the following areas: – Decreased knowledge of recent occasions or current events – Impaired ability to perform challenging mental arithmetic-for example, to count backward from 100 by 7 s. – Decreased capacity to perform complex tasks, such as marketing, planning dinner for guests, or paying bills and managing finances. – Reduced memory of personal history. – The affected individual may seem subdued and withdrawn, especially in socially or mentally challenging situations.

Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) • Stage 5: Moderately severe cognitive decline (moderate Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) • Stage 5: Moderately severe cognitive decline (moderate or mid-stage Alzheimer's disease) • Major gaps in memory and deficits in cognitive function emerge. Some assistance with day-to-day activities becomes essential. At this stage, individuals may: – Be unable during a medical interview to recall such important details as their current address, their telephone number, or the name of the college or high school from which they graduated. – Become confused about where they are or about the date, day of the week, or season – Have trouble with less challenging mental arithmetic; for example, counting backward from 40 by 4 s or from 20 by 2 s – Need help choosing proper clothing for the season or the occasion – Usually retain substantial knowledge about themselves and know their own name and the names of their spouse or children – Usually require no assistance with eating or using the toilet

Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) Stage 6: Severe cognitive decline (moderately severe or Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) Stage 6: Severe cognitive decline (moderately severe or mid-stage Alzheimer's disease) • Memory difficulties continue to worsen, significant personality changes may emerge, and affected individuals need extensive help with customary daily activities. May… – Lose most awareness of recent experiences and events as well as of their surroundings. – Recollect their personal history imperfectly, although they generally recall their own name. – Occasionally forget the name of their spouse or primary caregiver but generally can distinguish familiar from unfamiliar faces. – Need help getting dressed properly; without supervision, may make such errors as putting pajamas over daytime clothes or shoes on wrong feet. – Experience disruption of their normal sleep/waking cycle. – Need help with handling details of toileting (flushing toilet, wiping, and disposing of tissue properly). – Have increasing episodes of urinary or fecal incontinence. – Experience significant personality changes and behavioral symptoms, including suspiciousness and delusions (for example, believing that their caregiver is an impostor); hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that are not really there; or compulsive, repetitive behaviors such as handwringing or tissue shredding. – Tend to wander and become lost.

Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) Stage 7: Very severe cognitive decline (severe or Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease (Cont. ) Stage 7: Very severe cognitive decline (severe or late-stage Alzheimer's disease) • This is the final stage of the disease when individuals lose the ability to respond to their environment, the ability to speak, and, ultimately, the ability to control movement. – Frequently individuals lose their capacity for recognizable speech, although words or phrases may occasionally be uttered. – Individuals need help with eating and toileting and there is general incontinence of urine. – Individuals lose the ability to walk without assistance, then the ability to sit without support, the ability to smile, and the ability to hold their head up. Reflexes become abnormal and muscles grow rigid. Swallowing is impaired.

Alzheimer’s Web Resources • http: //www. alz. org/ • http: //www. alzheimers. org/ • Alzheimer’s Web Resources • http: //www. alz. org/ • http: //www. alzheimers. org/ • http: //www. ninds. nih. gov/health_and_medical/disorders/alzhe imersdisease_doc. htm • http: //www. ahaf. org/alzdis/about/adabout. htm • http: //www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/alzheimersdisease. html http: //www. crystalinks. com/alzheimersbrain. jpg

Mad Cow Disease Mad Cow Disease

Mad Cow Disease • Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) • Identified as a fatal bovine Mad Cow Disease • Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) • Identified as a fatal bovine CNS disease in UK in 1986. • “Wasting away” disease. • Affected animal exhibits poor coordination, trouble walking, and weight loss. • Countries where affected cattle were found: UK, France, Switzerland, Canada, Spain, Germany, Japan, Russia, and, as of December 22, 2003, in the United States as well. • As of May 2003, v. CJD has affected 139 people worldwide.

Cause of BSE “The exact cause of BSE is not known but it is Cause of BSE “The exact cause of BSE is not known but it is generally accepted by the scientific community that infectious forms of a type of protein, prions, normally found in animals cause BSE. In cattle with BSE, these abnormal prions initially occur in the small intestines and tonsils, and are found in central nervous tissues, such as the brain and spinal cord, and other tissues of infected animals experiencing later stages of the disease. ” http: //www. cfsan. fda. gov/~comm/bsefaq. html

Related Brain Disease in Humans “v. CJD, like other transmissible encephalopathies, robs an affected Related Brain Disease in Humans “v. CJD, like other transmissible encephalopathies, robs an affected individual of mental faculties and muscle coordination, eventually leading to coma and death. This category of illnesses is caused by prions, proteins that are normal in their molecular makeup but abnormal in their shape, like springs that have been bent out of configuration. It is believed that v. CJD results from contact with prions in tissues of cattle with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), or “mad cow disease, ” which, in turn, distort normal proteins in human brain and nerve cells. Only minuscule amounts of prion-tainted tissues are required in order to transmit the disease. 7 Prions concentrate in the brain and spinal cord, but also have been found in blood and muscle tissue. Prions are very difficult to destroy, even by the chemical or heat disinfectant methods used in hospitals. Heating to 134 degrees Celsius (273 degrees Fahrenheit) does not reduce their infectivity”. http: //pcrm. org/health/prevmed/madcow_facts. html

Safeguards Against BSE Since 1989, the FDA and other federal agencies have had ongoing Safeguards Against BSE Since 1989, the FDA and other federal agencies have had ongoing regulatory measures in place to prevent BSE contamination of U. S. food and food products since 1989. Following the identification in a Washington state dairy herd of the BSE-positive cow imported from Canada, the USDA has issued four new regulations containing additional safeguards to further minimize risk for introduction of the BSE agent into the U. S. food supply. These safeguards include: – A ban on use of live, but non-ambulatory cattle from entering the human food supply – A ban on use of organs, from cattle older than 30 months, in which infectious prions occur and the tonsils and small intestine of cattle of all ages for human food – Restrictions on techniques to mechanically remove meat from bones, and – Meat from tested animals will not be certified as USDAinspected until test results are final.

Mad Cow Disease Web Resources • http: //www. fda. gov/oc/opacom/hottopics/bs e. html • http: Mad Cow Disease Web Resources • http: //www. fda. gov/oc/opacom/hottopics/bs e. html • http: //www. usda. gov • http: //www. cdc. gov/ncidod/diseases/cjd. htm • http: //www. alz. org/alzheimers_disease_creu tzfeldt_Jakob_disease. asp

How to Tell if Your Cow Has Mad Cow Disease • http: //www. cybersalt. How to Tell if Your Cow Has Mad Cow Disease • http: //www. cybersalt. org/cleanlaugh/madco w. htm

http: //www. familydoctor. co. uk/htdocs/STROKE_specimen. html http: //www. familydoctor. co. uk/htdocs/STROKE_specimen. html

Risk Factors for Stroke: Controllable and Treatable (Cont. ) • Physical inactivity and obesity: Risk Factors for Stroke: Controllable and Treatable (Cont. ) • Physical inactivity and obesity: both can increase your risk of high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, diabetes, heart disease and stroke. So go on a brisk walk, take the stairs, and do whatever you can to make your life more active. Try to get a total of at least 30 minutes of activity on most or all days. • Excessive alcohol: Drinking an average of more than one alcoholic drink a day for women or more than two drinks a day for men can raise blood pressure and may increase risk for stroke. • Some illegal drugs: Intravenous drug abuse carries a high risk of stroke. Cocaine use has been linked to strokes and heart attacks.