Ch 4 Cellular Structure and Function 1

Ch. 4 Cellular Structure and Function 1

4. 1 Cellular Level of Organization • Detailed study of the cell began in the 1830 s • A unifying concept in biology • Originated from the work of biologists Schleiden and Schwann in 1838 -39 • Cell Theory: § All organisms are composed of cells § All cells come only from preexisting cells § Cells are the smallest structural and functional unit of organisms 2

Sizes of Living Things Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 0. 1 nm 100 nm protein amino acid 1 m chloroplast 10 m 100 plant and animal cells m 1 mm 1 cm human egg atom ant 1 m 100 m 1 km rose mouse frog egg virus most bacteria 0. 1 m ostrich egg blue whale human electron microscope light microscope human eye 3

Cell Size • Cells range in size from one millimeter down to one micrometer • Cells need a large surface area of plasma membrane to adequately exchange materials. • The surface‑area‑to‑volume ratio requires that cells be small § Large cells - surface area relative to volume decreases § Small cells – larger surface area to volume ratio is advantageous for exchanging molecules 4

Microscopy Today: Compound Light Microscope • Light passed through specimen • Focused by glass lenses • Image formed on human retina • Max magnification about 1000 X • Resolves objects separated by 0. 2 mm, 500 X better than human eye 5

Compound Light Microscope Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 85 µm amoeba, light micrograph eye ocular lens light rays objective lens specimen condenser lens light source a. Compound light microscope © Robert Brons/Biological Photo Service 6

Microscopy Today: Transmission Electron Microscope • Abbreviated T. E. M. • Electrons passed through specimen • Focused by magnetic lenses • Image formed on fluorescent screen § Similar to TV screen § Image is then photographed • Greater magnification than Compound Light Microscope 7

Transmission Electron Microscope Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 200 nm pseudopod segment, transmission electron micrograph electron source electron beam electromagnetic condenser lens specimen electromagnetic objective lens electromagnetic projector lens observation screen or photographic plate b. Transmission electron microscope © M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited 8

Microscopy Today: Scanning Electron Microscope • Abbreviated S. E. M. • Specimen sprayed with thin coat of metal § Electron beam scanned across surface of specimen § Metal emits secondary electrons • Emitted electrons focused by magnetic lenses • Image formed on fluorescent screen 9

Scanning Electron Microscope Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 500 µ m amoeba, scanning electron micrograph electron gun electron beam electromagnetic condenser lenses scanning coil final condenser lens secondary electrons specimen electron detector TV viewing screen c. Scanning electron microscope © Kessel/Shih/Peter Arnold, Inc. 10

4. 2 Prokaryotic Cells • Lack a membrane-bound nucleus • Structurally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells (which have a nucleus). • Prokaryotic cells are placed in two taxonomic domains: § Bacteria § Archaea • Live in extreme habitats 11

The Structure of Prokaryotes • Extremely small: 1– 1. 5 μm wide and 2– 6 μm long • Occur in three basic shapes: § Spherical coccus, § Rod-shaped bacillus, § Spiral spirillum (if rigid) or spirochete (if flexible). • Cell Envelope includes: § Plasma membrane - lipid bilayer with imbedded and peripheral protein § Cell wall - maintains the shape of the cell and is strengthened by peptidoglycan § Glycocalyx - layer of polysaccharides on the outside of the cell wall 12

The Structure of Prokaryotes Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. spirillum spirochete bacillus coccus 13

Prokaryotic Cytoplasm and Appendages • Cytoplasm § Semifluid solution • Bounded by plasma membrane • Contains water, inorganic and organic molecules, and enzymes § Nucleoid is a region that contains the single, circular DNA molecule § Plasmids are small accessory (extrachromosomal) rings of DNA • Appendages § Flagella – provide motility § Fimbriae – small, bristle-like fibers that sprout from the cell surface § Conjugation pili – rigid tubular structures used to pass DNA from cell to cell 14

The Structure of Prokaryotes Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Ribosome: site of protein synthesis Inclusion body: stored nutrients for later use Mesosome: plasma membrane that folds into the cytoplasm and increases surface area Fimbriae: hairlike bristles that allow adhesion to the surfaces Conjugation pilus: elongated, hollow appendage used for DNA transfer to other bacterial cells Nucleoid: location of the bacterial chromosome Plasma membrane: sheath around cytoplasm that regulates entrance and exit of molecules Cell wall: covering that supports, shapes, and protects cell Glycocalyx: gel-like coating outside cell wall; if compact, called a capsule; if diffuse, called a slime layer Flagellum: rotating filament present in some bacteria that pushes the cell forward Escherichia coli © Howard Sochurek/The Medical File/Peter Arnold, Inc. 15

4. 3 Introducing Eukaryotic Cells • Cells contain: § Membrane-bound nucleus that houses DNA § Specialized organelles § Plasma membrane • Much larger than prokaryotic cells 16

Origin of Organelles Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Original prokaryotic cell DNA 1. Cell gains a nucleus by the plasma membrane invaginating and surrounding the DNA with a double membrane. Nucleus allows specific functions to be assigned, freeing up cellular resources for other work. 2. Cell gains an endomembrane system by proliferation of membrane. Increased surface area allows higher rate of transport of materials within a cell. 3. Cell gains mitochondria. aerobic bacterium Ability to metabolize sugars in the presence of oxygen enables greater function and success. mitochondrion 4. Cell gains chloroplasts. Ability to produce sugars from sunlight enables greater function and success. Animal cell has mitochondria, but not chloroplasts. photosynthetic bacterium chloroplast Plant cell has both mitochondria and chloroplasts. 17

Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles • Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized § They contain small structures called organelles • Perform specific functions • Isolates reactions from others • Two classes of organelles: § Endomembrane system • Organelles that communicate with one another – Via membrane channels – Via small vesicles § Energy related organelles • Mitochondria and chloroplasts • Independent and self-sufficient 18

Animal Cell Anatomy Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. mitochondrion chromatin nucleolus nuclear envelope Plasma membrane: outer surface that regulates entrance and exit of molecules endoplasmic reticulum protein 2. 5 µm phospholipid Nucleus: command center of cell • Nuclear envelope: double membrane with nuclear pores that encloses nucleus Cytoskeleton: maintains cell shape and assists movement of cell parts: • Chromatin: diffuse threads containing DNA and protein • Nucleolus: region that produces subunits of ribosomes Endoplasmic reticulum: protein and lipid metabolism • Microtubules: protein cylinders that move organelles • Intermediate filaments: protein fibers that provide stability of shape • Rough ER: studded with ribosomes that synthesize proteins • Actin filaments: protein fibers that play a role in cell division and shape • Smooth ER: lacks ribosomes, synthesizes lipid molecules Centrioles*: short cylinders of microtubules Peroxisome: vesicle that is involved in fattyacid metabolism Centrosome: microtubule organizing center that contains a pair of centrioles Ribosomes: particles that carry out protein synthesis Lysosome*: vesicle that digests macromolecules and even cell parts Vesicle: small membranebounded sac that stores and transports substances Polyribosome: string of ribosomes simultaneously synthesizing same protein Mitochondrion: organelle that carries out cellular respiration, producing ATP molecules Cytoplasm: semifluid matrix outside nucleus that contains organelles Golgi apparatus: processes, packages, and secretes modified proteins *not in plant cells © Dr. Dennis Kunkel/Visuals Unlimited 19

Plant Cell Anatomy Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. peroxisome mitochondrion nucleus ribosomes central vacuole plasma membrane cell wall chloroplast 1 µm Nucleus: command center of cell Central vacuole*: large, fluid-filled sac that stores metabolites and helps maintain turgor pressure • Nuclear envelope: double membrane with nuclear pores that encloses nucleus • Nucleolus: produces subunits of ribosomes Cell wall of adjacent cell • Chromatin: diffuse threads containing DNA and protein • Nuclear pore: permits passage of proteins into nucleus and ribosomal subunits out of nucleus Middle lamella: cements together the primary cell walls of adjacent plant cells Ribosomes: carry out protein synthesis Chloroplast*: carries out photosynthesis, producing sugars Centrosome: microtubule organizing center (lacks centrioles) Granum*: a stack of chlorophyllcontaining thylakoids in a chloroplast Endoplasmic reticulum : protein and lipid metabolism • Rough ER: studded with ribosomes that synthesize proteins Mitochondrion: organelle that carries out cellular respiration, producing ATP molecules • Smooth ER: lacks ribosomes, synthesizes lipid molecules Microtubules: protein cylinders that aid movement of organelles Peroxisome: vesicle that is involved in fatty acid metabolism Actin filaments: proteinfibers that play a role in cell division and shape Golgi apparatus: processes, packages, and secretes modified proteins Cytoplasm: semifluid matrix outside nucleus that contains organelles Plasma membrane: surrounds cytoplasm, and regulates entrance and exit of molecules Cell wall*: outer surface that shapes, supports, and protects cell *not in animal cells © Newcomb/Wergin/Biological Photo Service (FIRST USE) 20

4. 4 The Nucleus and Ribosomes • The Nucleus § Command center of cell, usually near center § Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear envelope • Consists of double layer of membrane • Nuclear pores permit exchange between nucleoplasm & cytoplasm § Contains chromatin in semifluid nucleoplasm • Chromatin contains DNA of genes, and proteins • Condenses to form chromosomes – Chromosomes are formed during cell division § Dark nucleolus composed of r. RNA • Produces subunits of ribosomes 21

Anatomy of the Nucleus Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. nuclear envelope nucleolus Nuclear envelope: inner membrane outer membrane nuclear pore chromatin nucleoplasm phospholipid (Bottom): Courtesy Ron Milligan/Scripps Research Institute; (Top right): Courtesy E. G. Pollock 22

Ribosomes • Are the site of protein synthesis in the cell • Composed of r. RNA § Consists of a large subunit and a small subunit § Subunits made in nucleolus • May be located: § On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby making it “rough”), or § Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in groups, called polyribosomes 23

Function of Ribosomes Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Nucleus 1. m. RNA is first copied from a gene, and then it exits the nucleus through a pore complex. A ribosome attaches and begins protein synthesis, producing a signal peptide. m. RNA DNA ribosome m. RNA signal peptide nuclear pore ribosomal subunits 2. Signal recognition particle (SRP) binds to signal peptide and temporarily halts protein synthesis. signal recognition particle (SRP) receptor Cytoplasm 3. SRP binds to receptor (purple); a channel opens; SRP leaves and allows protein synthesis to resume; as polypeptide is synthesized it is simultaneously fed into ER. Lumen of ER Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) ER membrane m. RNA SRP enzyme 4. An enzyme removes the signal peptide from the growing polypeptide. 5. Ribosomal subunits and m. RNA break away. The polypeptide remains in the ER an`d folds into a functional protein 24

4. 5 The Endomembrane System • Series of intracellular membranes that compartmentalize the cell • Restrict enzymatic reactions to specific compartments within cell • Consists of: § § Nuclear envelope Membranes of endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Vesicles • Several types • Transport materials between organelles of system 25

Endoplasmic Reticulum • A system of membrane channels and saccules (flattened vesicles) continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope • Rough ER § Studded with ribosomes on cytoplasmic side § Protein anabolism • Synthesizes proteins • Modifies and processes proteins • Smooth ER § § No ribosomes Synthesis of lipids Site of various synthetic processes, detoxification, and storage Forms transport vesicles 26

Endoplasmic Reticulum Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. ribosomes Nuclear envelope rough endoplasmic reticulum smooth endoplasmic reticulum 0. 08 µm © R. Bolender & D. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited 27

The Golgi Apparatus • Golgi Apparatus § Consists of flattened, curved saccules § Resembles stack of hollow pancakes § Modifies proteins and lipids • Receives vesicles from ER on cis (or inner face) • Packages them in vesicles • Prepares for “shipment” and packages them in vesicles from trans (or outer face) • Vesicular Transport 28

Golgi Apparatus Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. secretion transport saccules vesicle transport vesicles trans face cis face Golgi apparatus Nucleus 0. 1µm Courtesy Charles Flickinger, from Journal of Cell Biology 49: 221 -226, 1971, Fig. 1 page 224 29

Lysosomes • Membrane-bound vesicles (not in plants) § Produced by the Golgi apparatus § Contain powerful digestive enzymes and are highly acidic • Digestion of large molecules • Recycling of cellular resources • Some genetic diseases § Caused by defect in lysosomal enzyme § Lysosomal storage diseases (Tay-Sachs) 30

Endomembrane System Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Consumption Secretion 5. Secretion plasma membrane 4. Secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane as secretion occurs. Incoming vesicle brings substances into the cell that are digested when the vesicle fuses with a lysosome. enzyme 3. Golgiapparatus modifies lipids and proteins from the ER; sorts them and packages them in vesicles. Lysosome Contains digestive enzymes that breakdown worn-out cell parts or substances entering the cell at the plasma membrane. protein 2. Transport vesicle shuttles proteins to various locations such as the Golgi apparatus. Transport vesicle shuttles lipids to various locations such as the Golgi apparatus. lipid 1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins and packages them in vesicles; vesicles commonly go to the Golgi apparatus Smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes lipids and also performs various other functions. ribosome Nucleus 31

4. 6 Other Vesicles and Vacuoles • Peroxisomes § Similar to lysosomes • Membrane-bounded vesicles • Enclose enzymes § However • Enzymes synthesized by free ribosomes in cytoplasm (instead of ER) • Active in lipid metabolism • Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 – Toxic – Broken down to water & O 2 by catalase 32

Vacuoles • Membranous sacs that are larger than vesicles § Store materials that occur in excess § Others very specialized (contractile vacuole) • Plants cells typically have a central vacuole § Up to 90% volume of some cells § Functions in: • Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and waste products • Development of turgor pressure • Some functions performed by lysosomes in other eukaryotes 33

Plant Cell Central Vacuole Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 100 nm © Newcomb/Wergin/Biological Photo Service 34

4. 7 Energy-Related Organelles • Chloroplasts § Bounded by double membrane § Inner membrane infolded • Forms disc-like thylakoids, which are stacked to form grana • Suspended in semi-fluid stroma § Green due to chlorophyll • Green photosynthetic pigment 35

Chloroplasts • Membranous organelles (a type of plastid) that serve as the site of photosynthesis • Captures light energy to drive cellular machinery • Photosynthesis § Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO 2 & H 2 O § Makes own food using CO 2 as only carbon source § Only plants, algae, and certain bacteria are capable of conducting photosynthesis 36

Chloroplast Structure Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. a. 500 nm outer membrane double membrane inner membrane grana thylakoid stroma space thylakoid membrane b. Courtesy Herbert W. Israel, Cornell University 37

Mitochondria • Smaller than chloroplast • Contain ribosomes and their own DNA • Surrounded by a double membrane § Inner membrane surrounds the matrix and is convoluted (folds) to form cristae. § Matrix – Inner semifluid containing respiratory enzymes • Break down carbohydrates • Involved in cellular respiration • Produce most of ATP utilized by the cell 38

Mitochondrion Structure Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. a. double membrane outer membrane inner membrane 200 nm cristae matrix b. Courtesy Dr. Keith Porter 39

4. 8 The Cytoskeleton • Maintains cell shape • Assists in movement of cell and organelles • Three types of macromolecular fibers § Actin filaments § Intermediate filaments § Microtubules • Assemble and disassemble as needed 40

Actin Filaments • Extremely thin filaments like twisted pearl necklace • Dense web just under plasma membrane maintains cell shape • Support for microvilli in intestinal cells • Intracellular traffic control § For moving stuff around within cell § Cytoplasmic streaming • Function in pseudopods of amoeboid cells • Important component in muscle contraction (other is myosin) 41

Intermediate Filaments • Intermediate in size between actin filaments and microtubules • Rope-like assembly of fibrous polypeptides • Vary in nature • Function: § Support nuclear envelope § Cell-cell junctions, like those holding skin cells tightly together 42

Microtubules • Hollow cylinders made of two globular proteins called a and b tubulin • Spontaneous pairing of a and b tubulin molecules form structures called dimers • Dimers then arrange themselves into tubular spirals of 13 dimers around • Assembly: § Under control of Microtubule Organizing Center (MTOC) § Most important MTOC is centrosome • Interacts with proteins kinesin and dynein to cause movement of organelles 43

The Cytoskeleton Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. actin subunit Chara a. Actin filaments fibrous subunits peacock b. Intermediate filaments tubulin dimer chameleon c. Microtubules a(Actin): © M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited; b, c(Intermediate, Microtubules): © K. G. Murti/Visuals Unlimited; a(Chara): The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. /photo by Dennis Strete and Darrell Vodopich; b(Peacock): © Vol. 86/Corbis; c(Chameleon): © Photodisc/Vol. 6/Getty Images 44

Centrioles • Short, hollow cylinders § Composed of 27 microtubules § Microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping triplets • One pair per animal cell § Located in centrosome of animal cells (not in plants) § Separate during mitosis to determine plane of division • May give rise to basal bodies of cilia and flagella 45

Centrioles Copyright © The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. empty center of centriole one microtubule triplet one centrosome: one pair of centrioles two centrosomes: two pairs of centrioles 200 nm (Middle): Courtesy Kent Mc. Donald, University of Colorado Boulder; (Bottom): Journal of Structural Biology, Online by Manley Mc. Gill et al. Copyright 1976 by Elsevier Science & Technology Journals. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier Science & Technology Journals in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Center 46

Inner Life of a Cell 47