British and American dictionaries of surnames Patrick Hanks Editor in Chief, Dictionary of American Family Names Editor in Chief, Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland Visiting professor, Bristol Centre for Linguistics, University of the West of England patrick. w. hanks@gmail. com 1
Talk Outline • Goals of academic research vs. goals of lexicography • What is a British/Irish/American surname? • Selection of entries: – statistical criteria – Etymological, historical, and geographical criteria • • Historical documentation of surnames Geographical distribution of surnames Migration: movement of people and the effects on names Some facts and figures, and sample entries: – DAFN (Dictionary of American Family Names) – Fa. NBI (Family Names in Britain and Ireland) 2
‘Surname’ vs. ‘family name’: Is there a difference in meaning? • No. There is no significant difference. – The term ‘surname’ tends to emphasize etymological, philological, and historical aspects. – The term ‘family name’ tends to emphasize genealogical aspects. • For all practical purposes, the two terms are interchangeable. 3
Contrasting aims of academic research vs. lexicography • Academic researchers typically aim at depth. Typically, a researcher in the humanities aims to say everything that can be said about the chosen subject. – If the chosen subject is too broad, the researcher can opt to narrow it: – ‘Trade in medieval Europe’ ‘The influence of shipbuilding on European trade, 1450 -1480’. • By contrast, lexicography typically aims at breadth. – A dictionary that omits many of the words (or names) of a language or community is not a good dictionary. • The Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland (Fa. NBI) aims to satisfy both goals (breadth and depth). 4
What is a British/Irish/American surname? • An Irish surname is a name with an etymology in the Irish language. • In Britain, however, surnames have etymologies from many languages: – French, English, Gaelic, Welsh, Cornish, Scandinavian, Dutch, German, Yiddish, and many other languages. • Is a Dictionary of British Surnames a practical goal? Should it aim to be a dictionary of the surnames of all speakers of English? A dictionary of the surnames of everyone who lives in Britain? Or what? – But English is now spoken almost everywhere in the world. – Britain is now a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural society. • The USA is even more multi-diverse. – The Dictionary of American Family Names (DAFN) is in effect a Dictionary of World Surnames (with special emphasis on the names of people now living in America). 5
Major works on English surnames • P. H. Reaney (1958): Dictionary of British Surnames – Revised [under the title Dictionary of English Surnames] by R. M. Wilson (1984, 1991) • English surnames series (R. Mc. Kinley, G. Redmonds, D. Postles) – county-by-county surveys of medieval data in a few counties. – It is not in dictionary format. • G. F. Black (1946): Surnames of Scotland • E. Mac. Lysaght (6 th edition, 1985): The Surnames of Ireland • T. J. and Prys Morgan (1985): Welsh Surnames – Organized according to Welsh language etymons • G. Redmonds (2015): Dictionary of Yorkshire Surnames 6
Selection of entries (1): historical principles • Reaney and Wilson (R&W) is based on historical principles: • It has been teh standard work from 1958 t 9 the foundation of all subsequent systematic work on English surnames. • BUT if R&W could not find early bearers of a name, or if they could not explain it, they simply omitted it. As a result, R&W has no entry for over 30, 000 modern British names: • E. g. Alderson (5382 bearers in 2011), Blair (11255), Critchley (4011), Perks (4510), Pringle (5201), Sneddon (4758). – Also, R&W contains approximately 4000 entries that have died out since the medieval period (no modern bearers): • E. g. Dodell (0), Dogood (0), Dogshanks (0), Dottle (0), Douceamour (0). – R&W contains almost no Jewish names: • There is no entry for Cohen (7061) or Rothschild (130) • Levy (4661 bearers) is explained only as one of seven variants of the English name Leavey (287, from OE personal name Lēofwīg ‘beloved warrior’). – R&W has only garbled and sporadic coverage of Irish and Scottish names. 7
‘Fudges’ in R&W • A new approach is needed because R&W contains many errors and literally thousands of heterogeneous groupings and ‘fudges’. Here’s an example of a fudge: Ravenshaw, Ravenshear, Ramshaw, Ramshire, Ranshaw, Renshall, Renshell This cluster of names is explained by R&W as: ‘Dweller by the raven wood’, with place-name examples Ravenshaw (in Warwickshire) and Renishaw (in Derbyshire). BUT this is not quite right: – 1) Some of these names (e. g. Ravenshaw) are place-names but have died out (or never existed) as surnames. – 2) Subsequent research has shown that the origins are quite distinct: Ramshaw is indeed from a place named as ‘wood of the raven(s)’ but it is from a place so called near Bishop Auckland (County Durham), not from a place in Derbyshire. – Renshaw, on the other hand, is from a place in Derbyshire named as ‘Reynold’s wood’. 8
R&W takes little or no account of geographical distribution For example, the entry for Rochester in R&W explains it only as “from Rochester (Kent)” with a couple of medieval bearers of the name from the nearby county of Essex. OK, but Fa. NBI has identified a much more likely source in north-eastern England: Rochester from one of three places in Northumb with names whose early spellings are very similar and difficult to distinguish from each other. Rudchester … in Ovingham, recorded as Rodecastre in 1251, Ruchestre in 1293, Routchester in 1663, is the likeliest source of the surname … Early Bearers: Simon de Roucestr', 1207, Simon de Rouecestre, 1212, Richard de Rouecestre, 1267, in Assize Rolls (Northumb); Connand Rawchester, 1543 in IGI (Durham, Durham); Jennett Rochester, 1572, Georg Rochester, 1576, Isabell Rotchester, 1579, Robert Ratchester, 1582 in IGI (Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumb); Thomas Rochester, 1582 in IGI (Gateshead, Durham). 9
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Selection of entries: statistical criteria (1: Fa. NBI) • Fa. NBI uses statistical criteria for selecting its entries and information, but also observes etymological and historical principles. • The first edition of Fa. NBI (published by OUP in November 2016) has an entry for all family names in the 2011 UK census with 100 or more bearers. • Plus many rarer names of special historical or philological interest. • Over 4, 000 entries for recent immigrant names. • Over 45, 600 entries altogether. • The second edition (already in progress) will contain over 60, 000 entries (including all “established” UK names). – Fa. NBI distinguishes “established surnames” from “recent immigrant names”, by comparing the 2011 census with the 1881 census. 11
Historical Documentation • Fa. NBI cites EBs (early bearers) gleaned from over a thousand sources, including in particular : – – – Patent Rolls (London administrative records, 13 th century onwards) Feet of Fines (conclusions of lawsuits, 12 th century onwards) 14 th century Poll Tax returns (1377, 1379, and 1381) Canterbury records of wills: ‘PROB 11’ (1384 -1858) Parish Registers and Nonconformist circuit records from the International Genealogical Index (IGI, 1538 - 1899) – Tudor Fiants (Ireland, 1521 -1603) • The period in which many Irish language names were being anglicized 12
Example of an entry from Fa. NBI Nabb Frequencies: GB 1881: 181, GB 1997: 94, GB 2011: 95, Ireland 1997: 2, Ireland 2008: 0. Main GB location, 1881: Lancs Variants: Napp, Nabbs, Nobs, Nobs. 1 English: locative name: for someone who lived by a nab, Middle English nabbe ‘hillock, knoll’ (Old Scandinavian nabbi ‘projecting peak, hill’). There are many minor places named with this word, for example Whalley Nab in Blackburn (Lancs), which is recorded as Nab in 1579, Nab in Mirfield (WR Yorks), Nab Scar in Rydal (Westm), which is recorded as le Nab in the 13 th century, and The Nab in Burgh Saint Margaret (Norfolk) Early Bearers: (i) N England: Petr' del Nab, 1324– 6 in Gaol Delivery Rolls (Lancs); Avicia de Nabb', 1379 in Poll Tax (Holmfirth, WR Yorks); Radulphi Nabbe, 1573, Willm. Nabb, 1602 in IGI (Bolton, Lancs); Jane Nabbe, 1574 in IGI (Prestbury, Cheshire); Elizabeth Nabbe, 1591, Lawrence Nab, 1611 in IGI (Bury, Lancs); Law. Nabbe, 1634 in IGI (Leek, Staffs). (ii) E Anglia: Richard atte Nab, 1293 in Norwich Deeds (Norfolk); Robt atte Nab, 1312– 13 in Feet of Fines (Norfolk); Rad. atte Nab, 1333– 4 in Feet of Fines (Bittering Magna, Norfolk); Henry atte Nab, 1345– 7 in Norwich Freemen (Beetley, Norfolk); Mariona atte Nabbe, 1379 in Poll Tax (Paston, Norfolk); Adam Nap, 1715 in IGI (Woodbastwick, Norfolk); James Nab, 1718 in IGI (Blickling, Norfolk). 2 English: relationship name from the Middle English personal names Nabb and Napp, which are probably parallels to Nobb and Nopp, pet forms of Robert, rhymed on Rab and Rob. Compare the evidence for a diminutive form provided by Robert Nabelot, 1524 in Subsidy Rolls (Suffolk); see also Nobbs and Roblett. Early Bearers: (i) given names: Nabbe Brodeye, 1298, Nabbe son of Broun, 1308 in Wakefield Court Rolls (WR Yorks). (ii) surnames: John Nap, 1279 in Hundred Rolls (Cambs); Johanne Napp, 1379 in Poll Tax (Shalbourne, Wilts); Johannes Nape, 1379 in Poll Tax (Corscombe, Dorset); Johannes Nape, 1381 in Poll Tax (Wellsworth, Hants); Henricus Nappe, 1381 in Poll Tax (Bosmere hundred, Hants); Amye Napp, 1564 in IGI (Micheldever, Hants); Richard Nabb, 1578 in IGI (Eastbourne, Sussex); Henry Napp, 1594 in IGI (Billingshurst, Sussex); William Nappe, 1631 in IGI (Barcombe, Sussex). 3 Scottish: relationship name from Scottish Gaelic Mac an Aba(dh) ‘son of the abbot’, see Mc. Nab. 13
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Beware of ‘obvious’ etymologies • Cambridge is a famous university city in E England. But where does the surname Cambridge come from? Here is an extract from Fa. NBI: • Cambridge frequencies: GB: 1595, Ireland: 131. • Main GB location 1881: Gloucs; London; Cambs • Main Irish location 1847 -64: Antrim; Cork 1 English locative name: either from the village of Cambridge (Gloucs) or from the university city in E Anglia. It was not until late in the 14 th century that the form Cambrigge became common for the latter, so earlier examples of this form are almost certainly from the place in Gloucs. Cambridge (Cambs) was earlier Grantabrycge, Cantebrigge, and the like. Early Bearers: Picot de Grantebrige, 1086 in Domesday Book (Cambs); Richard de Cambrige, 1182 in Pipe Rolls (Staffs); Alan de Cambrigge, 1227 in Assize Rolls (Staffs); William de Cantebregge, 1338 in London Letter Books F; Stephen de Caumbrigge, 1348 in Flower, Public Works (Cambs), John Caumbrigge, 1376 in London Letter Books H; Johannes de Cambrege, 1379 in Poll Tax (Walden Stubbs, WR Yorks); Thome Cambrydge, 1571 in PROB 11 (Swaffham Prior, Cambs); Richard Cambridge, 1639 in PROB 11 (Langley Burrell, Wilts). 2 Irish: from Mac Ambróis, see Mc. Cambridge. 15
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Scottish surnames from England • Laidlaw is a Scottish surname, a form of Ludlow (name of a town near the border between England Wales). • The name was taken north by the family of William of Lodelawe some time before 1296. • Ramsey, Lindsay, Coventry, Barclay, Hamilton, and many others are Scottish names derived from places in England • A seminal moment in Scottish surname history: – King David I (ruled 1124 -53) spent his teenage years as a Scottish princeat the court of King Henry I in England. He married Matilda, Countess of Huntingdon. – After three older brothers predeceased him, he succeeded to the throne of Scotland, and devoted much energy to ‘Normanizing’ his administration. – An ensuing steady flow of Norman barons, knights, adventurers, and fortune seekers northwards (then and later). 17
Selection of entries: statistical criteria (2: DAFN) DAFN (American family names) is based on statistical criteria. • The first edition (published in 2003) contains over 70, 000 entries: – based on analysis of the names of 75 million telephone subscribers in a 1997 electronic telephone directory. • The second edition (research in progress) will contain 80, 000 entries: – all names in the 2000 US census – plus several rarer names of historical importance (e. g. Stuyvesant). • DAFN does not at present include early bearers. • It would desirable to add some, systematically: • Start by adding genealogical records and details from forums. • DAFN’s consultant Marc Picard (Canada) has expertise in this area. • Add an analysis of immigrant names from passenger lists. 18
Polygenesis and Monogenesis • Smith, Jones, and Johnson are polygenetic names. – Descended from several different original bearers • Sykes, Hanks, and Pulvertaft are monogenetic – All modern bearers get the name from a single original bearer • But what about Pardoe and Pardey? – – – Identical etymology (an oath name: par dieu ‘by God’), Reaney lumps them together in a single entry, but: Pardoe is significantly associated with South Staffordshire, Pardey with Dorset. Almost certainly unrelated independent coinages. 19
Early migration and family history Rootham, statistically, is a Bedfordshire surname. • But it is derived from Wrotham, a place in Kent. – People move around – and always have done. – An early migrant ancestor can affect geographical distribution. – Geoffrey de Wrotham (12 th century) was a domestic servant of successive archbishops of Canterbury. – His son William de Wrotham, became sheriff of Devon (1198). – His grandson, William de Wrotham, archdeacon of Taunton, was active in the creation of a navy during the reign of King John. – Another (or the same) William de Wrotham is mentioned in the records of Harrold Priory (Beds. ), 1206. This is the earliest Bedfordshire record of the family. 20
Recent immigrant names in Britain (RI names) • Britain is now a multicultural, multiethnic society. – A database that is planned as a public resource cannot simply ignore this fact. – Fa. NUK contains‘stub’ entries for RI names down to a threshold of 100 UK bearers – headword, frequency, source language, and (if known) etymon – Fa. NBI cites occasional early immigrants in Britain for RI names, but does not investigate the history of the name (or early bearers) of the name in the source country 21
American surnames of Romance origin • Over 5000 entries in DAFN (1 st edition) come, directly or indirectly, from Spain. – This number is expected to rise to over 7000 in the 2 nd edition. – Approximately 500 are identified as Galician. – Approximately 400 are identified as Basque. • Nearly 8000 from Italy. • Over 1000 from Portugal. • Only 119 from Romania. 22
Correlating unknown surnames with forenames • What is the origin of the surname Deak? – 1317 bearers in the 2000 US census – Only 92 bearers in the UK, mostly in Scotland. 23
Deak as an American surname • 1 Hungarian (Deák): occupational or status name for a notary, scholar, priest teacher, or someone who could write in medieval Latin, deák. In old Hungarian texts the word deák refers to the Latin language, which was officially used in Hungary both in secular and ecclesiastical writing as late as the 18 th century. The surname is also found in Austria, where it is sometimes spelled Deack. 2 Possibly an Americanized spelling of German Dieck. 3 Scottish (Glasgow): variant of Deek, itself a variant of Dick with lowering and lengthening of the vowel. • Forenames: Hungarian 6%. Bela (2), Imre (2), Mihaly (2), Akos, Gabor, Istvan, Laszlo, Tibor. 24
Principles of surnames research (Brit. and Am. ) • Analyse large computational databases of early records, to support scholarly interpretation. • Correlate statistics of surnames with names of localities (both synchronically and across time, to monitor name movements). • Critical scrutiny of the explanations of earlier researchers. • Explain surnames of Irish, Scottish, Welsh, and Cornish origin. • Get recent immigrant names in perspective. • Seek co-operation with genealogists. • Correlate surnames with ‘diagnostic’ forenames. 25
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