Bio- and landscape diversity Theme 3 Theme

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Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Theme 3: Values and functions of biodiversity • The concept of value of biodiversity • Intrinsic values • Anthropocentric values

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 What is the value of biodiversity: The concept of value In its most general meaning the value means importance for something or for somebody. The object to has its value should be important for something. To have the value means to be important. In some cases the value could be estimated (in particular, in money). But in many cases the value has no its estimate (like the masterpieces of art, which are invaluable, priceless). It is so important that we are not able estimate it. The values could be of two types depending on its subject. The subject is something for whom the object is important, who has the need in it. If the subject and the object of value are the same the value is called as intrinsic value (the word “intrinsic” means inner, inherent). Intrinsic value is the value that an object has in itself or for its own sake, in its own right. As of biodiversity, the intrinsic value of biodiversity is the value of Intrinsic value biodiversity to itself. The biodiversity is important to maintain the life on the Earth – animals, plants, microorganisms, communities, natural ecosystems. If the subject and the object of value are different the value is called as extrinsic value (the word “extrinsic” means outer, external). Extrinsic value is the value that an object has for any other subject, including humans. One object could have not a single one but many extrinsic values, because it could be important for many subjects. As of biodiversity, the extrinsic value of biodiversity is the value of biodiversity to various human needs – in food, clean environment, in health and prosperity. Due to the fact that the subject, which is most interested in biodiversity, is human the extrinsic values of biodiversity are often called as anthropocentric values. The anthropocentric values of biodiversity are numerous because humans have many different interests in maintaining and restoring of biodiversity. Extrinsic value (monosubject case) Extrinsic values (multisubject case)

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 What is the value of biodiversity: general types of biodiversity values Generalized importance of biodiversity could be grouped into three types of question people ask themselves when thinking about it: 1 - We need biodiversity In this category are the claims concerning the usefulness of biodiversity: genetic resources for medicine, pharmacy, and agriculture; ecosystem services. 2 - We like biodiversity. In this category are the claims that biodiversity is a direct source of pleasure biodiversity and aesthetic satisfaction: its contribution to quality of life, outdoor recreation, and scenic enjoyment; to preserving a sense of place; and to preserving refuges of wildness (wildlands and wild habitats). 3 - We think we ought to take care of biodiversity. In this category are the claims that people have biodiversity duties to preserve and protect biodiversity – duties based on higher moral principles or on rights that are attributed to biodiversity or its living components. Needs 1 and 2 are extrinsic values and needs 3 – intrinsic values of biodiversity. Need 1 is mostly economic values of biodiversity Need 2 is mostly ethical and aesthetic values of biodiversity

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Intrinsic values of biodiversity – all the life forms in the Earth (plants, animals, microorganisms) are valuable themselves. They should be protected regardless of their value to humans. We are responsible for not our life only but for the life of any other living creatures in the Earth. This argument focuses on the conservation of all species. Protection of biodiversity is needed for biodiversity regardless it could be used for some human purposes or not. The first argument for the intrinsic value of biodiversity is the idea that humans are part of nature. As humans are and were part of nature, they benefited from the evolutionary process. Without the diversity of life forms the evolution would be blocked. The second argument: humans should protect biodiversity because they are the cause of loss of biodiversity. We are responsible for the damage to biodiversity and have an obligation to protect every species. The third argument is that human individuals have personal responsibility for better and safer life of their family, social group to which an individual belongs. Persons of modern societies are responsible not for their family only but also for other living creatures and processes, including species, ecosystems and the whole Earth. The fourth argument for the intrinsic value of biodiversity is religious: if God created the natural world alongside humans, then all creatures have intrinsic value. We, humans, could not destroy and ignore things that were created be God and our duty is to protect all God’s creatures. : Spheres of personal responsibility of an individual

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity Extrinsic value of biodiversity is the value of biodiversity to various human needs. Protection of biodiversity is needed for humans because it provides them with many services and resources. The extrinsic value of biodiversity is also called the anthropocentric values as the men (anthropos) are consumer of these resources and services. Due to their anthropocentric values the components of biodiversity and biodiversity itself are often considered and named as "biological resources“. The terms “resource” means that it could be consumed, used for something by somebody. Extrinsic values The biodiversity is used by humans at all its levels starting from genes and finishing with the landscapes. Just few examples: • genes are used by plant breeders (genetics) to develop new crop varieties and species which are more productive and to plant diseases; • species are used for various foods, medicines, and industrial products (like furniture); • communities are used for nature restoration and creating of new types of vegetaion cover (e. g. in landscape design, in forestry for more productive woodstands etc) • ecosystems provide services, such as water purification and flood control; • natural landscapes are used for recreation and leisure etc. In the USA the contribution of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries to the US gross domestic product (GDP) is equal to the contribution of the chemical and petroleum industries combined. The full contribution of biodiversity-related industries to the economy is in fact higher, because it includes shares of such sectors as recreation, tourism, hunting, and pharmaceuticals.

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: classification Anthropocentric values of biodiversity are very numerous and different. They are classified into: Economic values for agriculture horticulture forestry energy production Human health benefits for drugs and medicines made from biotic organisms recreation in nature Cultural values scientific aesthetic touristic spiritual inspiration Environmental values bioremediation cleaning the waters, air, soils protection of soils from erosion Future potential values

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: economic values The economic value of biodiversity means that we can extract from nature materials and services that directly augment human wealth and well-being. The free ecosystem services provided by biodiversity save us billions of dollars annually. To lose them might bankrupt us, not only ecologically, but economically. VALUES FOR AGRICULTURE Only about 150 species of plants have entered world commerce, and 103 species account for 90% of the supply of food plants by weight, calories, protein, and fat for most of the world's countries. Just three crops – wheat, rice, and maize – account for roughly 60% of the calories and 56% of the protein consumed directly from plants. Although relatively few species are consumed for food, their productivity depends on genetic diversity within the species. Genetic diversity provides the raw material for plant breeding, which is responsible for much of the increases in productivity in modern agricultural systems. In the United States from 1930 to 1980, plant breeders' use of genetic diversity accounted for at least the doubling in yields of rice, barley, soybeans, wheat, cotton, and sugarcane; a threefold increase in tomato yields; and a fourfold increase in yields of maize, sorghum, and potato. An estimated $1 billion has been added to the value of US agricultural output each year by this widened genetic base. Breeders rely on access to a wide range of wild relatives of crops as sources of genetic material that is used to enhance productivity or quality. Different landraces can contain genes that confer resistance to specific diseases or pests, make crops more responsive to inputs such as water or fertilizers, or confer hardiness enabling the crop to be grown in more extreme weather or soil conditions. Humans also use a relatively small number of livestock species for food and transportation: only about 50 species have been domesticated. Here, too, genetic diversity is the raw material for maintaining and increasing the productivity of livestock species.

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: economic values TIMBER PRODUCTION Most of the world's timber production still comes from nondomesticated systems, although a growing share is now harvested on plantations. In tropical forests, for example, the area of plantations increased from 18 million hectares in 1980 to 40 million in 1990. BIOTECHNOLOGY Companies are screening the properties of organisms to develop new antifouling compounds for ships, new glues, and to isolate new genes and proteins for use in industry. Biodiversity is the essential "raw material" of the biotechnology industry, but the process of examining biodiversity for new applications in that industry has only begun. SERVICES Humankind derives considerable benefits not only from the products of biodiversity but also from services of ecological systems. . The services include • the provision of clean water, • regulation of water flows, • modification of local and regional climate and rainfall, • maintenance of soil fertility, • flood control, and the protection of coastal zones from storm damage • pest control. The economic dimension of bio- and landscape diversity services means that some technologies (e. g. for water purification) are provided for free. Humans would not spent money for it simply using the ability of diverse ecosystems to clean the water from pollutants.

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: Human health benefits PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS FROM PLANTS, ANIMALS, MICROORGANISMS Wild species of plants and animals have long been the source of important pharmaceutical products. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that some 80% of people in developing countries obtain their primary health care in the form of traditional medicines. Systems of ayurvedic medicine (traditional Hindu medical practices) in India and the traditional systems of Chinese herbal medicine reach hundreds of millions of people. Total sales of herbal medicines in Europe, Asia, and North America were estimated at $8. 4 billion in 1993. Natural products also continue to play a central role in the pharmacopeia of industrialized nations. In total, 57% of modern pharmaceutical products owed their existence either directly or indirectly to natural products. For example, Ginkgo extracts now constitute one of the most widely used medicines in Europe, prescribed by German medical doctors to over 10 million patients annually. The development of modern techniques has dramatically increased the efficiency and decreased the cost of screening for natural products. Each month a new antibiotic or a new drug that originated from plant sources appears.

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: Human health benefits PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS Few examples of drugs produced from plants and animals • Aspirin, was initially a botanical product that was derived from folk medicine people that chewed on willow twigs to get rid of headaches and pains. • Gamma-linolenic acid derived from evening primroses prevent heart disease, eczema, and arthritis. • Squalamine, found in all shark tissues, has been shown to kill bacteria, fungi, and parasites. • Over three thousand antibiotics (tetracycline and penicillin among them) have been developed from microorganisms Genus of Willow tree (Salix) is used for the Aspirin production Evening primrose (Oenothera) is widely used now for numerous drugs

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: Human health benefits RECREATION Diverse landscapes with rich biodiversity are widely used for recreation and leisure of people. Fishing, hunting, and various nonconsumptive uses, such as bird-watching, contribute to the economy. In the United States such activities involves up to 100 million persons (adults) yearly. They are paying more than 100 billion of US Dollars each year for these activities in natural environment. The diverse landscapes are perceived by people as more beautiful and are more preferable as the places for recreation. Low landscape diversity = = low preference High landscape diversity = = high preference

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: Cultural values TOURISTIC VALUES About 25% in tourism revenues is due to "nature tourism" (ecological, green tourism). For example, more than half of the visitors in Costa Rica said that the national parks are their "principal reason" for travelling to the country. Costa Rica's protected areas are estimated to account for $87 million annually in tourism revenues. To satisfy human needs in tourism to natural environments many national parks and biosphere reserves were organized throughout the World. Yosemite Valley, Yosemite National Park, California, USA. An elephant safari through the Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal, India

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: Cultural values SCIENTIFIC VALUE Biodiversity must be preserved as raw material to study. The more we understand study it, the greater the number of uses we find for it, the greater the demand for its preservation. Biodiversity holds the potential for applied knowledge through the discovery of how different species have adapted to their varied environments. Biodiversity has often served as an early-warning system that has foretold threats to human health before sufficient data had been collected to detect effects directly. AESTHETIC VALUE Natural and wild landscapes with rich biodiversity are aesthetically pleasing and provide opportunities to get away from human-dominated landscapes. People have aesthetic satisfaction while seeing the diverse ecosystems and landscapes. Among the factors determining the aesthetic preference the landscape and vegetation diversity is of a great importance. INSPIRATIONAL VALUE For many people, especially for the artists, the diverse landscape and rich biodiversity give inspiration for creative activities – writing poems, composing music, drawing nice paintings, etc. John Constable and his painting Lord Byron, poet

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: Cultural values SPIRITUAL VALUE For people of many traditional societies, both past and present, many species of plants and animal, and some natural landscapes, which are remarkable with their diversity, play role as spiritual sacred objects. For modern societies many animal and plant species have a symbolic value. For example, white-headed eagle for Americans, elk for Swedish and Canadians, bear for Germans, ibis for Egyptians and some other African Nations, cows for Indians. Bear, Ursus Great Seal of the United States (American, white -headed, eagle) FUTURE POTENTIAL VALUE Most of species of plants, animals and microorganisms have their values and could provide humans with many services which are not known for us today. Biologists say that more values of biodiversity are unknown than known. Yet these cannot be discovered, and benefit humankind, if they disappear before discovery. The loss of biodiversity can be compared to book burning (the obliteration of former and future knowledge).

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Anthropocentric (extrinsic) values of biodiversity: ecological values Biodiversity: • creates soil and maintains its fertility, • controls global climate, • inhibits agricultural pests, • maintains atmospheric gas balances, • generates oxygen • process organic wastes, • pollinates crops and flowers, • recycles nutrients A group of ecologists calculated that the price of replacing these ecosystem services would cost over $3 trillion. That's greater than the entire global GNP! In other words, the world cannot afford to replace these services, therefore we must work to protect our ecosystems. Natural communities maintain proper gaseous concentrations in the atmosphere and prevent rapid climate changes. Drastic changes in the Earth's atmosphere can have catastrophic effects. Such changes are believed to have led to the disappearance of dinosaurs from Earth 65 million years ago. Vegetation helps recycle moisture into the atmosphere. A single corn plant (1 lb dry weight) can transfer 60 gallons of water from soil to atmosphere in a few months. A single rainforest tree, in its 100 year lifespan can transfer approximately 2. 5 million gallons from soil to air. A multiplicity of organisms is required to create soils and maintain fertility through complex cycles and interactions. A gram of fertile agricultural soil may contain 2. 5 billion bacteria, 400 000 fungi, 50 000 algae and 30 000 protozoa. Natural ecosystems help absorb the wastes we create and render them nontoxic. For example, wetlands are large filters which purify freshwater and remove heavy metals and other contaminants from it. Soil organisms can slowly decompose food items, paper products and other wastes produced by human activities. Biodiversity is an indicator of environmental health. Endangered species are meaningful primarily because they tell us where there is trouble. For example, butterflies are key indicator organisms for the health of ecosystems, cancers are good indicators for clean fresh water.

Bio- and landscape diversity: Theme # 3 Next theme: Loss of biodiversity • Extinction • Threatened species • Geography of extinction • Threats to biodiversity

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