Best Practices in Public Relations Research Don W. Stacks, Ph. D. School of Communication University of Miami Coral Gables, FL 33145
What is Research? • Controlled, objective, and systematic gathering of data • Strives to describe, understand, predict, and control social and business phenomena • Seeks to answer questions • Reliable and valid way to access data • Systematic collection and interpretation of data
Theory vs. Applied Research • Theory Ø Abstract, conceptual Ø Builds a “body of knowledge” for PR Ø Academic or Basic Research Ø Serves as a framework for understanding and predicting why people act the way they do. • Applied Research Ø Concrete, practical Ø Strategic Research develops programs, messages, and benchmarks Ø Evaluation Research determines whether communication campaigns works
Main Uses of Public Relations Research • • Monitoring developments and trends Examining public relations position Assessing messages and campaigns Measuring communication effectiveness Tracking studies Gap studies Evaluation research
General Research Assumptions • Decision-making process is uniformly the same in all companies and organizations • All communication research should: ØSet objectives ØDetermine strategy to establish objectives ØImplement tactics which bring strategies to life
Assumptions (Cont’d. ) • Research can be divided into three general phases: – Program or campaign development – Program refinement – Program evaluation • Communication research is behavior-driven and knowledge-based
Public Relations Research Assumptions • Research must be behavior-driven and yield data that help design campaigns that lead to desired behavior • PR campaign research must parallel decisions communication pros make; otherwise, they are not knowledge-driven or information based • Effective research is integral to campaign creation, implementation, and evaluation
Best Practice Public Relations Research Programs… 1. Conduct background/secondary research to establish benchmarks 2. Establish achievable goals 3. Ask appropriate research questions 4. State measurable objectives 5. Employ the appropriate methodologies 6. Understand the need for programmatic research 7. Have the budgets/resources necessary
1. Does Homework: Secondary Research/Benchmarking • Establishes both an understanding of what has been done and how it was done ü Adds to an understanding of theory ü Provides a window into past practice ü Not a new concept; espoused by John Hill in the 50 s • Reduces the costs associated with needless replication • Provides possible benchmarks against which to gauge progress
2. Establishes Achievable Goals • Goal: General outcome expected by campaign end • Objective: Very specific projected output • Outputs: individual communication elements üImpact of specific tactics üWritten, visual, verbal
3. Asks The Appropriate Research Question(s) • All research addresses four research questions ØQuestions of Definition ØQuestions of Fact ØQuestions of Value ØQuestions of Policy • Best practice research asks and answers them in order: definition, fact, value, policy
Questions Cont’d. • Definition ü What is it? ü How do I operationalize it? • Fact ü Does it exist? ü In what quantity? ü Do groups differ or did change occur over time? • Value ü How good or bad is it? ü How well was it done? ü Addresses aesthetics • Policy ü What should be done ü Answered through research on definition, fact, and value
4. States Measurable Objectives • Management must concur about objectives üDo they meet the business objective(s)? • Precise, results-oriented objectives üStated in measurable ways? • Realistic, credible, measurable, and compatible objectives üAre they realistic or are they simply goals?
Objectives (cont’d. ) • Informational objectives fairly clear cut ü What information does the public need? ü When do they need it (before, during, after)? • Motivational objectives require ü Research ü Means to isolate effect provided by public relations • Behavioral objectives state ü What you expect the public to do
Programmatic Approach Secondary/ Benchmark Informational/ Evaluation Behavioral/ Evaluation Motivational/ Evaluation Planned benchmarked evaluations Time Development (Evaluation) Refinement (Evaluation) Final Evaluation
Objectives, cont’d. Informational Objective(s) Motivational Objective(s) Behavioral Objectives Business objective(s)
5. Employs Appropriate Methodologies • A public relations campaign hardly ever employs only one method • Best practices “triangulate” methods to ensure that all research questions are addressed • Methods are often classified as “qualitative” and “quantitative” or “informal” and “formal”
Public Relations Methods • Surveys and Polls ü Descriptive ü Explanatory ü Attitude ü Opinion Polls • Content Analyses ü Descriptive ü Readability ü Readership • Communication Audits • Delphi Studies • Focus Groups • Field Observations ü Participant-Observation ü In-depth Interview • Case Studies • Experiments
Qualitative or Quantitative Methods? • Qualitative: Questions of definition and value ØIntense, but small sample ØIn-depth knowledge vs. Generalizability ØExamples üFocus Groups üParticipant-Observation üInformal Observations üIn-depth Interviewing üCase Studies
Qualitative or Quantitative Methods? (Cont’d. ) • Quantitative: Questions of definition and fact ØScientific ØLarge samples ØGeneralizability vs. In-depth understanding ØReliable, representative sampling ØExamples ü Surveys (descriptive, explanatory, attitude) ü Opinion polls ü Delphi studies ü Experiments
Secondary Qualitative Triangulation Quantitative
Qualitative or Quantitative Methods? (Cont’d. ) • Triangulation üUses secondary, qualitative, and quantitative methods to better describe, understand, predict, and control public relations campaigns üProvides both representative sampling and indepth knowledge of the publics or audiences under study üTakes the case study into the “real” world
Quantifying via Measurement • Assigning numbers to categories • Four Levels ØNominal (distinguishes only; counts, percent) ØOrdinal (distinguishes and orders; counts, percent) ØInterval (assumes an equal distancing between categories; counts, means, dispersion) ØRatio (assumes absolute distancing between categories; counts, means, dispersion)
Measurement Examples • Nominal ü England, France, Germany, Austria • Ordinal ü GNP: Austria ($1 B), England ($2 B), France ($3 B), Germany ($4 B) • Interval ü Strongly Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree • Assumes that the distance between SA = D = SD (problem is that SA=A, and D=SD, but D A) • Data are interval, but not “scalar” in that there is no arbitrary zero point • Ratio ü Actual date and time of birth; Bank account balance
Attitude Measurement • Most Often Likert-Type Measurement Ø Assumes interval data Ø Respondents “react” to statements, typically by degree of agreement Ø MUST have a “zero” point — a midpoint Ø MUST have an ODD number of responses (3, 5, 7) Ø MUST consist of two or more statements statement 1. Strongly Agree statement 2. Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Disagree
Attitude Measurement (Cont’d. ) • Creates a “scale” of statements that Ø Range from Positive through Neutral to Negative Public Relations is an excellent career. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Public Relations is a career. Agree Strongly Uncertain Disagree Strongly Public Relations is no career at all. Agree Uncertain Disagree +2 5 +1 4 0 3 -1 2 -2 1 Actual reaction to statements is Coded as Scale Range = 3 (negative) to 15 (positive)
Surveys vs. Polls • Polls – Short and quick – fact-based • Surveys – Longer – Definition- and fact-based – Allow for limited questions of value
Poll & Survey Sampling • Sampling 1. Scientific Sampling = Probability Sampling 1. Group sampled represents the entire population from which it is drawn (cross-sectional; trend; panel; cohort trend) 2. Non-Scientific Sampling = Convenience Sampling 1. Group sampled is not representative of entire population, but only one limited segment (volunteer, snowball, quota, “man-on-the-street”
6. Programmatic PR Research • Best practice research is programmatic • Divided into three phases – Program development research – Program refinement research – Program evaluation research
Program Development Research • Program Development stage requires: ü Communications goals ü Research goals • Communication Goals ü Establish actionable and measurable objectives ü Design overall strategy to achieve these objectives • Research Goals 1. Understand the situation 2. Relate this understanding to the communications opportunities
Program Development Research Should Tell You • The circumstances creating the opportunity or challenge • Target audience(s) characteristics • What needs to be communicated to realize the objective • How ideas can best be communicated • Go beyond just turning out information… development stage helps to change, modify, or reinforce behavior
Program Refinement Research • Communication Goals üMake correct decisions implementing the PR or communication program • Research Goals üValidate that decisions made are correct üSupply the information necessary to choose between alternatives
Why Program Refinement Research? • Pre-testing of messages üInformative, Persuasive, Attitude Change, Attitude Reinforcement • Pre-testing of public/audience stance on objectives • Pre-testing communication strategies • Pre-testing for gatekeeper selection • Pre-testing for publics (Active, Aware, Passive, Latent)
Program Refinement Research Examples • Types: üConcept/Message testing studies (definition) üSpokesperson selection research (fact) üFormat testing (fact/value) • Methods üFocus Groups üPolls (telephone/Internet) üInformal Field Research
Program Evaluation Research • Communication Goal ü Determine program/campaign’s effectiveness • Research Goals ü Performance measurements in terms of • Outputs: Air time, clippings, Internet “hits, ” etc. • Impacts: What program/campaign did to audience(s) • Behavior: Were desired behaviors realized?
7. Research and the Budget • Research is a necessary, not sufficient condition for public relations • Research is a part of EVERY program/ campaign budget • Research permeates the program/campaign, plan research across the process • Integrated research is essential to effective public relations and should be built in to each budget
Budgetary Factors • Circumstances • Availability of in-house personnel to conduct research • Commercial research firm availability • Whether the research has been budgeted across or simply as a budget “item” • The research question(s) asked
Research Costs • Focus Groups: $1, 000 – $4, 500 per group • One-on-One Interviews: $250 – $2, 000 per interview • Telephone Surveys: Ø Small: $ 3, 500 – $35, 000 Ø Large: $20, 000 – $95, 000 • Mail/Internet Surveys Ø Small scale: $ 5, 000 – $30, 000 Ø Large scale: $12, 500 – $85, 000
Stretching the Research Budget • Never sacrifice quality for price • Seek competitive bids Ø Never take the low bid without examining the individual or firm’s credentials • Learn about research questions and budget appropriately Ø Don’t conduct a survey when a focus group is more efficient Ø When looking only for facts, consider a poll over a survey Ø Never stop “participating” in the research experience ü All good researchers are Participant-Observers ü Continually seek informal data in the field
Conclusions • Best Practice Public Relations Research ØIs programmatic ØHas clearly defined and achievable goals ØHas its objectives stated in measurable terms ØAddresses the appropriate research question(s) ØEmploys a “triangulated” methodologies ØHas the necessary resources allocated to the research program
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