Assessment of Memory Processes Milton J Dehn Ed

Assessment of Memory Processes Milton J. Dehn, Ed. D. MASP Conference: Day I October 22, 2015

Notice of Copyright 2015 This Power. Point presentation and accompanying materials are copyrighted by Milton J. Dehn and Schoolhouse Educational Services, LLC. The Power. Point and materials are not to be reprinted, copied, presented, or electronically disseminated without written permission. To obtain permission, email milt@psychprocesses. com.

Workshop Information Sources 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Essentials of Working Memory Assessment Long-Term Memory Problems in Children Essentials of Processing Assessment, 2 nd Ed. Working Memory in the Classroom www. psychprocesses. com www. schoolhouseeducationalservices. com www. workingmemoryonline. com Presenter Contact: milt@psychprocesses. com

Workshop Content 1. Memory processes 2. Related cognitive processes 3. Neuropsychology of memory and processing 4. Risk factors 5. WM Assessment 6. LTM Assessment 7. Processing Assessment and Analysis 8. Using MPA and PPA software to determine strengths and weaknesses

Need for Memory Assessment and Interventions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Under-identified in children & adolescents 10% have a WM impairment-Alloway 6% of average children have LTM deficits (UK) Half of LD have a memory deficit (Dehn) LTM impairments are a growing problem, e. g, juvenile diabetes and concussions 6. Intervention expertise is lacking; identified children not served 7. Memory deficits are “The elephant in the classroom”

Why the Under-Identification? 1. Not considered during assessment or assessment knowledge lacking 2. Misattributions 1. Teachers report WM as inattentiveness 2. Test anxiety, motivation, study skills for LTM 3. Viewed as a “learning” problem 4. Lack of knowledge about memory functions 5. Lack of knowledge about interventions

Working Memory Definition 1. ST retention + processing = WM 2. “WM: the limited capacity to retain information while simultaneously manipulating the same or other information for a short period of time” 3. Keeping information in mind from moment to moment 4. STM is part of WM; WM “manages” STM as needed

Signs of WM Overload in Daily Life “What was I going to say? ” “What did I walk in here to get? ” Not noticing you made a mistake Reaching for the calculator Having to switch back and forth from one computer screen to another to remember • Having difficulty focusing or dividing attention • Unrelated thoughts getting in the way • • •

Why WM is So Important 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. WM is a core cognitive process Also, an important executive process It’s the interface between STM and LTM WM predicts academic learning Deficit predicts need for special ed. WM deficits seen in several disabilities Important in daily functioning

WM Capacity 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. STM adult span of 7; Digit span of 80? WM limit of 4 “chunks” Can be as little as one chunk in children Processing & storage use same WM resource Processing referred to as “cognitive load” Concurrent processing lowers span Strategies can increase span Duration affected by rehearsal & amount of interference Human limitations

Dehn’s Integrated Model of WM

WM Processes to Assess & Why 1. Assess: Phonological STM, Visual-Spatial STM, Verbal WM, Visual-Spatial WM, and Executive WM 2. They each have different functions 3. Each has a different neurological basis 4. To identify strengths and weaknesses for intervention purposes

Phonological STM (Auditory) 1. 2. 3. 4. Holds & manipulates speech-based info. The coding is phonological A loop of about 2 seconds Span equals amount articulated in 2 sec. 1. Span increases with speech rate increases 5. Includes a subvocal rehearsal process 6. Similarity/rhyming reduces span (interference) 7. Related to phonological processing & language development & basic reading skills

Visuospatial STM 1. Visual (object) and spatial (location); these are separate neurologically, e. g. dorsal (spatial) and ventral (visual) stream and thus should be considered separately 2. Is automatically updating 3. Concrete, nameable images are consciously recoded verbally after age 8; tendency to “abandon” visual-spatial

Verbal Working Memory 1. Processing plus storage; complex span 2. Effortful processing, manipulating, transforming, while maintaining verbal information 3. Meaningful processing, semantic information 4. Examples: Taking notes, reading comprehension, mental arithmetic

Visuospatial Working Memory 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Both mental imagery and visual stimuli Maintaining visual images during processing Manipulating, restructuring images Necessary for dealing with rotation Example: On-going awareness of location of automobiles in motion on a crowded freeway 6. Related with math

Executive WM 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The essence of working memory Combines storage and processing Integrates visual and verbal Controls and coordinates other components Allocates/focuses attention Inhibiting, shifting, updating Involves strategy use Often where the deficiency lies Close relationship with executive functions

The Big Three Executive WM Processes 1. Inhibiting: Suppressing distractors and interference 2. Shifting: Alternating between different processing tasks or between processing and storage (rehearsal) 3. Updating: Continual replacement of no longer relevant information with current information

Distinction Between Executive WM and Verbal and Visual-Spatial WM 1. This is Dehn’s model/definition 2. Executive is doing additional processing not necessary for verbal and visual-spatial WM 3. Both have processing and deal with interference 4. When the interference is not specific to the task, it is primarily executive WM 5. For example, processing language is verbal WM, but not executive

Activated LTM Processes 1. 2. 3. 4. Recently activated LTM representations WM works with these, going back and forth Up to 20 at a time Effectively expands capacity of WM because these are not stored in STM/WM 5. Are part of verbal and visual-spatial WM 6. WM may draw from these more than STM 7. Problem: No way to easily assess these

Working Memory and Related Cognitive Processes Should be considered when WM is deficient: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Attention Executive functions Fluid Reasoning Language Long-term memory Processing speed Phonological processing

WM and Related Cognitive Processes* General Intellectual Ability Fluid Reasoning Processing Speed Auditory Processing Long-Term Retrieval Visual-Spatial Processing *From WJ IV COG manual . 72. 54. 42. 56. 40. 37

What WM and Attention Have in Common 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Both are in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex Both part of general executive functions Both involve controlled attention Inhibition deficit underlies both ADHD and WM Both respond to Ritalin Problems manifest in similar ways When a student has a WM deficit, the number one thing reported by teachers is that the student has an attention problem

WM and Attention 1. The control of attention is part of WM 2. Paying attention is a necessary but insufficient condition for processing and retention in STM and WM 3. If child is paying attention and still can’t remember in the moment, it’s probably WM 4. Attention problems diminish WM performance in a normal WM

WM vs ADHD 1. The majority with ADHD have a WM problem 2. ADHD behavior issues have little to do with WM, except for poor decision-making 3. Attention involves arousal & motor inhibition 4. WM deficit closely related to Inattentive ADHD, not Hyperactive/Impulsive type 5. ADHD involves mainly visuospatial WM 6. Divided attention closest to WM 7. As WM load increases, hyperactivity increases

WM vs Executive Processing 1. WM is one of the executive functions 2. General executive processing controls and coordinates all cognitive functions 3. WM has it’s own executive control 4. STM functions well without executive 5. Inhibition is an overlapping function 1. General executive---resisting distraction 2. Working memory---inhibiting old information 6. Strategy selection is also overlapping

WM & Fluid Reasoning 1. 2. 3. 4. Correlations as high as. 90 Both require focused, controlled attention Reasoning is more the logic; relations WM maintains the content used in the reasoning process 5. Novel situations: with little long-term knowledge or automaticity require more fluid reasoning & working memory

WM & Oral Language 1. L 1 and L 2 development depend on Phonological STM and Verbal WM 2. Communication (thoughts into words with appropriate structure) depend on WM 3. Language development facilitates WM processing of information (they’re reciprocal) 4. Example: Following directions

WM & Phonological Processing 1. Correlation of. 85 with phonological STM 2. As reading develops, more differentiation 3. Phonological awareness and processing places demands on STM and WM 4. Phonological processing deficit is primary cause of reading disabilities

WM & Processing Speed 1. Processing speed accounts for most of the variance in STM span (up to 90%) 2. Slow: Information lost before processing and task completed 3. Slow: Poorer encoding into LTM 4. Faster rehearsal maintains more info. 5. Less of a relationship in adults 6. Case study example

Discussion How does the new information on working memory change your concept of it?

LTM Importance & Misconceptions 1. Everyone agrees on its importance for learning, identity, & daily functioning 2. People assume it’s okay when it’s not 3. Assume only head injuries harm it 1. Even then, memory functions often ignored 4. Assume nothing much can be done about it 5. When recognized, the specific memory process deficit is not identified

STM/WM vs LTM • • • STM Very limited capacity Retention for seconds Conscious access to all content Depends on attention Immediate retrieval only Forgetting is immediate Amenable to simple strategies Easy to assess Less susceptible to brain injury Frontal & parietal lobes Electrical activity LTM Extensive capacity Retention for minutes to years Limited conscious access Less dependent on attention Retrieval can be extended Forgetting is gradual Amenable to elaborate strategies Difficult to assess Very susceptible to injury Medial temporal lobe Neuronal and synaptic changes Long-term memory encoding changes the brain, WM and STM processing does not.

LTM Memory Systems 1. Explicit/declarative 1. Episodic---episodes, events, autobiographical 1. Organized by scripts 2. Semantic---factual, knowledge, academic 1. Organized by schemas 2. Implicit/nondeclarative 1. Priming---unconscious associations (example) 2. Procedural learning--- “how to” learning 3. Classical conditioning---e. g. , phobias 3. Prospective Memory (not really a separate memory system)

Explicit vs Implicit • • • Explicit Conscious Knowledge Flexible expression Hippocampus-dependent Recollection expresses Cognitive only Effortful retrieval also Develops until adulthood Vulnerable to injury Implicit Unconscious Skills Rigid expression Non-hippocampus Performance expresses Non-cognitive also Automatic retrieval only Developed by age 3 Resistant to injury

Episodic vs Semantic • • • • Episodic Memory for events Remembering Context dependent Subjective focus Vulnerable to pathology Develops later Known source Mostly visuospatial Unintentional encoding Chronological Organized spatiotemporally Subject to rapid forgetting Few demands on WM Semantic Memory for facts Knowing Context free Objective focus Resistant to pathology Develops first Unknown source Mostly verbal More intentional Categorical Organized by meaning Less rapid forgetting Requires WM

Episodic-Semantic Interactions 1. Semantic slowly accrues from episodic 2. School learning is initially episodic but eventually semantic 3. Episodic helps build the semantic 4. Semantic provides the schemas and scripts for the episodic 5. Episodic provides context cues for semantic 6. Memory tests are primarily episodic

LTM Processes • • Encoding Consolidation Storage Retrieval

Encoding 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Requires attention Associated with “learning” All other LT memory depends on Enhanced by strategies Hippocampus dependent STM and WM deficits reduce encoding opportunities

Consolidation 1. Memories become more stable and resistant to interference over time 2. Memories are forgotten because they are not consolidated 3. LT memories are initially and temporarily stored in the hippocampus and adjoining medial temporal lobe structures 4. Over time they are transferred to the cortex for more “permanent” storage

Consolidation Details 1. Neuroscience construct; not cognitive psych. 2. Evidence from TBI, amnesia, & sleep studies 1. Ribot’s gradient 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Takes time: hours to several days Unconscious mostly Much of it occurs during sleep Especially important for semantic memory Reactivations improve consolidation

Sleep and Consolidation 1. During both types of sleep 2. Hippocampus “replays” experiences/learning 1. “Organizes” information; Strengthens connections 2. “Moves” information to cortical areas 3. Sleep also reduces interference 4. Sleep accounts for 69% of next day improvement in procedural tasks 5. Immediate sleep: 81% recall; delayed: 66%

Storage of Memories 1. The connections (synapses) more important than the cellular changes 2. In networks of interconnected neurons, with associated items linked more closely 1. Logical linking at the neurological level may result from thinking about two things at the same time (associations) (“fire together; wire together” principle) 3. Memories end up being stored in same areas that sensed, perceived, and processed info.

Retrieval 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Mostly automatic; strengthens memories WM involved in effortful retrieval We know more than we can retrieve Hippocampus reintegrates information Reasoning involved in reconstruction During assessment, compare with recognition to determine whether it is a retrieval or a storage problem

Recognition 1. Should be better than uncued retrieval 2. If not, there is an encoding or a storage problem 3. When significantly better, there is a retrieval problem 1. Slow retrieval 2. Ineffective retrieval

Causes of Retrieval Problems 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Blocking or interference Slow processing speed Poor or no associations at time of encoding Wrong cues or lack of cues Has not been consolidated; is not in storage

Forgetting (Permanent) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Lost from storage; not a retrieval problem Lack of consolidation Fast at first, then reaches asymptote 20 to 80% forgotten within 24 hours Some retain well within 30 minutes or first day but then have very poor retention afterwards (poor consolidation) 6. Is it gone or not retrievable at moment?

Interference 1. Proactive---previous learning interferes with current learning 2. Retroactive---current learning interferences with previous learning 3. Related information is the most interfering 4. Controlled somewhat through inhibition 5. Spread out instruction; different material 1. Block scheduling?

Interference 1. The primary cause of forgetting 2. Memory improves when interference reduced 3. Amnesic individuals benefit from delaying interference (dark room example) 4. “Every time I learn something new, it pushes some old stuff out of my brain” Homer Simpson

Discussion How does the new information on long-term memory change your concept of it?

Neuroanatomy of Memory Processes

Prefrontal Cortex Image

WM Neuroanatomy Evidence 1. Evidence for each of the five WM components/processes, even phonological storage vs rehearsal 2. Executive WM: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (d. PFC)---shared with attentional control 3. STM processes mainly in parietal and occipital lobes 4. WM processes mainly frontal, temporal, parietal

Brain Lobes and STM & WM 1. Frontal (Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex): Executive WM 2. Temporal: Episodic WM (especially during LTM encoding and retrieval) 3. Parietal Lobes: Phonological STM and Verbal WM in language processing areas 4. Occipital Lobes: Visuospatial STM and WM

Neuropsychology of WM “working memory can be viewed as neither a unitary nor a dedicated system. Thus, working memory is not localized to a single brain region but probably is an emergent property of the functional interactions between the PFC and the rest of the brain” (D’Esposito, 2007)

WM Neurological Basis 1. Individual differences in WM capacity are correlated with the structural integrity of white matter pathways connecting domain general regions with the fronto-parietal network 2. Thus, WM is related to integrity (strength) and extent of myelinated axons 3. WM training increases the integrity of white matter (Takeuchi et al. , 2010)

Other Brain Involvement in General WM 1. Striatum: part of the forebrain and the basal ganglia system. Mainly involved with planning movement. 2. Anterior cingulate: a “collar” around the corpus callosum involved in decision making 3. Dopamine level is important for WM. A deficiency in dopamine can impair WM performance.

LTM and the Brain Lobes 1. Temporal lobes---encoding, retrieval, consolidation, temporary storage of longterm episodic memories, semantic storage 2. Frontal lobes---memory strategies for encoding and retrieval (no actual storage of long-term memories) 3. Parietal---auditory and spatial storage 4. Occipital---visuospatial storage

Prefrontal Cortex and LTM 1. Interacts with medial temporal lobe and hippocampus 2. Involved during conscious encoding and retrieval 1. Application of strategies 3. Prospective memory & source memory 4. Development of metamemory

The Hippocampus

Hippocampus Image

The Hippocampus 1. Seahorse shape in temporal lobe 2. Necessary for STM-LTM transfer 3. Encodes, consolidates, retrieves, reintegrates 4. May hold some episodic permanently 5. Explicit memory only 6. Sensitive to injury, glucose, oxygen, & cortisol levels

The Hippocampus 1. Responsible for transferring memories to cortex (consolidation); active during sleep 2. Has a spatial side and a verbal side 3. Spatial memory depends on it (more than verbal memory); London’s taxi drivers 4. Large EEG signals 5. High levels of glucocorticoid receptors 6. Size matters; bigger is better

The Hippocampus 1. Clearly necessary for episodic memory 2. May not be as essential for semantic memory 3. More involved with automatic retrieval; conscious retrieval may depend more on the prefrontal cortex 4. The hippocampus primarily stores associations between memories rather than the memories themselves; holds the key to the connections

The Hippocampus 1. Hippocampus contains stem cells 2. Hippocampus can grow (London taxi drivers) 3. New neurons can be created from stem cells; up to six weeks to mature 4. Rats given Prozac had a 70 percent increase in hippocampi cells after three weeks 5. Humans who recover from depression have more hippocampal volume than those who are chronically depressed

What the Hippocampus Needs 1. Oxygen 2. Glucose 3. Sleep (no permanent damage from lack of) 4. No cortisol 5. No impact 6. No electricity See You. Tube Video: “Hippocampus Damage”

Non-Hippocampal LTM Structures 1. 2. 3. 4. Thalamus (sensory relay station) Amygdala (emotions strengthen memories) Ventral visual stream (RAN) Parahippocampal cortex (surrounds hippocampus; memory encoding) 5. Entorhinal cortex (interface between hippocampus and neocortex) 6. Perirhinal cortex (visual recognition)

HM: Classic Case of No Hippocampus 1. Hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, entorhinal cortex, and amygdala were surgically removed in 1957 at age 27 because of epilepsy 2. Anterograde amnesia but STM and WM fine; could modify some semantic knowledge, such as celebrities’ names, but no new episodic memory 3. Some retrograde amnesia: Most events 1 -2 years prior to surgery forgotten but prior semantic memory was good

HM 1. Performed normally on intellectual tests 2. Could learn new motor skills (implicit, procedural memory) but could not remember that he had learned them 3. He could draw a map of the house he was living in (that he moved to after the surgery), maybe from locomotion recall 4. His case had strong influence on memory theories and brain mapping of memory

Implicit Memory 1. Does not appear to depend on the hippocampus 2. Not consciously accessible 3. Demonstrated through performance, not recall 4. Precedes development of explicit memory 5. Example of implicit memory without explicit

Implicit Memory Structures 1. Generally not in medial temporal lobe but parietal and occipital 2. Cerebellum---conditioning 3. Striatum---procedural learning 4. Also, temporal cortices, amygdala, basal ganglia, and motor cortex 5. Range of structures may serve a protective function

Organization of LTM Memories from Cognitive Perspective 1. Schemas 1. Logical linking at the neurological level may result from thinking about two things at the same time (associations) (“fire together; wire together”) 2. Scripts 3. Memory traces 4. Associations

Organization and Storage of Memories 1. The connections more important and better understood than the cellular changes 2. Memory traces (pathways): synapses 1. New memories: new synapses or changes in strength 3. In networks of interconnected neurons, with associated items linked more closely 4. Memories end up being stored in same areas that sensed, perceived, and processed info 5. Different components of a memory stored separately; then reintegrated during retrieval

Neuroanatomy of Other Processes 1. 2. 3. 4. Most in more than one brain lobe Illustrates the interconnectivity of processes Most have specific structures within a lobe Processing speed is a function of interconnectivity; does not have a specific structure

Occipital Lobe 1. Dedicated to vision and visual-spatial processing 2. Receives sensory data from the thalamus 3. Visual and spatial processing are separate 4. Dorsal stream (upper) sends spatial information to parietal lobe 5. Ventral stream (lower) sends visual information to temporal lobe

Temporal Lobe 1. Auditory processing 2. Long-term memory processing in the hippocampus 3. Some visual processing 4. Semantic memory storage

Parietal Lobe 1. Integrates sensory information 2. Language processing 3. Phonological processing

Frontal Lobe 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The “output” lobe; others are input Executive functions---prefrontal cortex Working memory---prefrontal cortex Attentional control---prefrontal cortex Fluid reasoning Fine motor Oral expression No storage of long-term memories

Discussion How does the new information on neuroanatomy change your concept of memory, processing, and learning problems?

Risk Factors for Memory Impairments 1. Anything that harms the brain or cognitive functioning impacts LTM 2. All involve risk of damage to hippocampus 3. The hippocampus is a vulnerable structure 4. Damage to prefrontal cortex also impacts LTM 5. Prenatal, perinatal, neonatal, any point in life 6. Some temporary with recovery, some stable, some progressively worse 7. See Table

Risk Factors: TBI 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. . 25% of youth acquire a TBI each year Severe TBI: 36 – 53% have ongoing LTM impairment Implicit more resistant to injury More verbal problems than visuospatial Most mild cases recover within a month 1. But some can have persistent problems 6. 7. 8. 9. Most moderate cases within 1 -2 years Frontal lobes: Metamemory and strategies Very susceptible to interference Require some different types of interventions

Concussions 1. 2. 3. 4. 19% chance for school athletes per year Likely memory problems: few days/weeks Loss of consciousness, orientation, increases risk Possibility of persistent LTM problems should be considered 5. Athletes will deny so they can play again 6. Pre-season baseline testing important (IMPACT) 7. Temporal window of vulnerability when second injury results in magnified cognitive deficits (case)

Post-Concussion Syndrome 1. These are acute effects 2. Headaches, dizziness/vertigo, nausea, light and noise sensitivity, fatigue, hypersomnia/insomnia, irritability, emotional dysregulation, dysmnesia, attention problems, processing speed, working memory 3. There can be long-term effects, such as vertigo

Concussion Case Study 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Soccer player; kick to head No loss of consciousness Some amnesia first few days Serious and persistent concussion symptoms 30 days later 1. Verbal and visuospatial WM down 1 SD 2. Verbal and visuospatial LTM down, esp. visual-spatial 6. Six months later; all recovered except visualspatial LTM

Extreme Prematurity 1. Hypoxia due to poorly developed lungs can damage hippocampus 2. Myelination adds to memory problems 3. Those born prior to 32 weeks have significant risk of memory problems 4. Episodic and “everyday” memory problems may be more serious than semantic memory problems

Type I Diabetes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Hippocampus sensitive to glucose levels Growing numbers of diabetic children Greater risk with earlier onset Greater risk with poorly controlled insulin Hypoglycemia damages hippocampus Memory functions decline over time Children of diabetic mothers also at risk Even nondiabetics with poor insulin control Adequate glucose also important for WM

Epilepsy 1. 10% have significant memory impairment 2. Depends on type, severity, frequency, and location of seizures 3. Temporal lobe type most devastating 4. Especially known for “accelerated forgetting” 5. Seizures disrupt consolidation 6. Six-year old case from Session I update

PTSD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Due to abuse, trauma or witnessing violence Do not need actual PTSD diagnosis for impact More PTSD symptoms, more LTM deficits Vietnam PTSD; 26% hippocampal reduction Cortisol damages hippocampus Temporarily elevated cortisol reduces encoding 7. Chronic stress causes LTM problems

Depression and Anxiety 1. Depressed adults have a 12 – 15% reduction in hippocampal volume 2. Depends on the number and duration of depressive episodes 3. Hippocampus damage is less when depression is treated 4. Anxiety primarily affects encoding

FAS and Alcohol Consumption 1. FAS children have a smaller hippocampus 2. Even mild alcohol consumption increases risk for LTM problems, which usually go undetected 3. Effects are dose-dependent 4. Difficulty inhibiting interference

Anorexia and Memory 1. Problems during and after illness 2. Working memory 3. Verbal recall and Visual-spatial recall 1. Due to reduced cerebral blood flow and high levels of stress hormones (corticosteroids) and glucose and nutritional deficiencies, e. g. vitamin B. 1 4. Have enhanced memory for maladaptive perceptions of food 1. Evidence that memories are of what you perceive

Disorders with High Risk of Memory Impairment 1. Learning disability 2. Language impairment 3. ADHD (semantic memory and strategy deficits) 4. Autism (semantic memory, strategy, facial memory deficits) 5. Down syndrome (interference)

Discussion What are the assessment and intervention implications of the risk factors?

WM Assessment Challenges 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Other processes interrelated Interrelated with LTM No standardized inclusive composites Can’t easily separate some components No complete batteries No easy way to assess strategy use Examinee’s expertise/automaticity Ecological validity; tests well but doesn’t perform well in classroom and daily life

LTM Memory Assessment Challenges 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Time consuming Memory abilities versus strategy usage Everyday mem. vs formal test activities Episodic vs semantic Can’t control learning opportunities Difficult to isolate memory processes Difficult to test consolidation Poor labeling on standardized measures Influence of STM, WM, other processes

Working Memory Assessment 1. Test all 5 WM/STM components 1. 2. 3. 4. To identify strengths and weaknesses To understand learning & WM problems Because they are neurologically separable More testing = higher reliability & validity 2. Observations and interviews important 3. Rating scales helpful

LTM Processes to Test 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Verbal Episodic Visual-Spatial Episodic Encoding Consolidation (must have 24+ delayed recall) Storage/Recognition Retrieval Fluency

Health and Developmental History 1. History of any at-risk conditions, e. g. diabetes 2. Complete history, beginning pre-natal 3. Health risk factors 1. Age of onset 2. Episodes leading to hospitalization 3. Any treatment 4. Developmental concerns, e. g. language development

Academic and Learning History 1. Academic markers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Diagnosed disorders Learning problems Grade retention Progress worse as memory demands increase Studies but performs poorly on exams 2. Memory concerns reported by teachers

Interviews 1. Include memory items in teacher interviews 2. With parents, adapt teacher items for home environment 3. Directly question older students 4. Assess metamemory 5. Elicit their hypotheses about learning and memory problems Link

Observations: General Findings Regarding WM 1. WM failure leads to abandonment of activity without completing it 2. Reserved in group activities 3. Short attention spans 4. Poor monitoring of work quality 5. Loses place in complicated tasks 6. Examples of evidence-based WM behaviors 7. LTM Observations

Metamemory 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Link Understanding memory functions Self-awareness of strengths/weaknesses Regulating/controlling memory Strategy knowledge and monitoring Simple strategy use by age 3 Conditional knowledge (why a strategy works) Metamemory development is an essential intervention piece; so, it needs to be assessed 8. Metamemory interview items

Signs of Poor Metamemory Development 1. Not aware of existing memory problems 2. No understanding of how memory works 3. Poor estimates of how much will be remembered (usually over estimates) 4. Has no realistic idea of how to make a memory stronger 5. Has no memorization strategies 6. Not aware of different types of memories

Strategy Development 1. Strategies enhance memory performance 2. Strategies more important for LTM than WM 3. Do children have memory problems because they lack strategy development? 1. Usually not (Swanson regarding WM) 4. Driven by the demands of the environment

Metamemory and Strategy Assessment 1. A standardized measure is lacking 2. Assess: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Knowledge of memory functions Knowledge of LTM strengths/weaknesses Accuracy of JOL’s Knowledge of strategies and use of strategies Try CVLT for semantic clustering After testing, ask what strategies were used

Informal Strategy Assessment 1. Question student during interview 2. Observe during testing 1. Rehearsing 2. Recoding 3. Chunking 3. Question after all testing completed 4. Try n-back with cards and see if examinee develops a strategy

Rehearsal Ability 1. Give child a series of words and ask him/her to repeat 5 times rapidly 2. Children with significant memory problems have difficulty maintaining the sequence during rehearsal 3. Will avoid using rehearsal when directed to do so

Consider Related Processes 1. Test other processes that are closely linked with memory components 2. Test memory when related processes are weak 3. Link

Testing WM with Cognitive Scales: Advantages 1. No need to buy separate scales 2. Usually do not confound learning/LTM encoding with STM or WM components 3. Tend to use traditional, purer measures of STM and WM 4. Correlations with other cognitive processes are known 5. Correlations with achievement scales

Cognitive Scales Disadvantages 1. Some measure only auditory/verbal 2. Some classify visual-spatial STM and WM under visual processing 3. Some confound STM and WM 4. Some do not have pure visual-spatial 5. Multi-battery testing necessary

Intellectual/Cognitive Tests with Working Memory Subtests 1. May be better than memory batteries 2. Most do not assess all WM components 3. Go by what is measured; not by subtest title or test author’s classification See selective tables for cognitive and other scales

WM Components in Broad Memory Batteries Pros: • Comprehensive assessment of most memory systems • Include learning measures, learning rate Cons: • STM subtests often confounded with learning • Misleading test names Link • See comprehensive list in MPA manual

Advantages to Testing with Memory Batteries 1. 2. 3. 4. Can compare with STM and WM directly Fewer confounds with other cog. processes More in-depth memory assessment Include recognition (retrieval) measures 1. Memory battery required for this 5. Include learning (encoding) measures 6. Both visual and verbal

Disadvantages to Testing with Memory Batteries 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. No semantic memory measures No measures of consolidation Do not measure “everyday” memory No metacognitive or strategy measures Maybe too much structure Measures of STM and WM are “messy”

Dehn: Task Analysis/Classification of Subtests 1. Consider definition of the process 2. Consider factor analytic information 3. What is the primary process being measured by the subtest? (not just input or output) 4. Which primary process allows the examinee to successfully complete the task 5. Consider what the task is typically used to measure

Selective & Multi-Battery Testing 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Start with batteries you have Try to limit number of supplemental batteries Avoid redundancies Tests should be normed about the same time Only selected subtests administered Composites are preferred, or two subtests May include rating scales Use multi-battery analysis procedures

WM Case Study: “Jacob” 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Age 13; 7 th grade Foster care; special ed placement 3 months premature; failure to thrive Early elementary IQ of 70; recent IQ of 95 ADHD diagnosis; poor organization Social skills problems Difficulty completing homework Moderately high test anxiety

Case Study Continued 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Likes to read Struggles with Math and Written Lang. Reading Composite – 106 Math Composite – 88 Wr. Lang. Composite – 73 Oral Lang Composite - 87 Group Task: Generate WM deficit hypotheses and related processing deficit hypotheses

Planning a Processing Assessment 1. Complete the processing assessment planner on case study 2. Consider concern 3. Hypothesize which processes involved 4. Consider non-processing hypotheses 5. Fill in all processes tested by primary scale 6. Find other scales to cover remaining processes See Partially Completed Example

Memory Analysis Worksheet 1. Composite scores from test manual when possible 2. Convert all scores to standard scores 3. Compute clinical scores by averaging 4. Compute processing or memory mean or use IQ 5. Calculate discrepancies 6. Determine weaknesses and deficits 7. Do pairwise comparisons 1. Opposites and those closely related

Weaknesses vs Deficits 1. Scores below 90 are normative weaknesses 2. Intra-individual strengths & weaknesses use 12 points 3. Deficit = both normative and intra-individual weakness (deficit is a “strong” weakness) 1. A deficit is rare 2. Indicates underlying neurological impairment 3. Learners with deficits really need interventions

Non-Unitary Scores 1. When standard score difference is greater than 22 points 2. Something different is being measured or something is different about the task 3. Investigate further with more testing if cannot be explained

Hypothesis Testing 1. Consider deficit hypotheses proposed prior to testing 2. Examine scores: support or not 3. Consider other data 4. Give weight to functional evidence 5. Be wary of confirmation bias or Type I errors: Seeing a weakness/deficit where there is none

Consistency Approach 1. With processing and memory assessment, use a consistency approach, not a discrepancy approach 1. Low WM + low academic skill = SLD 2. NOT high WM + low academic skill

When Does a WM Deficit Support an SLD Diagnosis? 1. When the memory or processing component is one that is related to the academic skill deficiency 2. When both the academic skill and WM component are similarly low (consistency approach) 3. When WM is significantly higher, it may not be SLD or there could be some other cause of poor skills

Pairwise Comparisons 1. More for intervention planning, not diagnosis 2. Pay most attention to: 1. Opposites 2. Those that are closely related 3. A greater discrepancy is required for significance 4. Significant when confidence intervals do not overlap

Discuss Jacob’s Results Link Do his memory and processing deficits account for his learning problems?

Psych Report Components 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Explain cross-battery selective testing Explain how analysis was conducted Explain what is being used to predict scores Integrate results by memory components Define each component Explain how it relates to academics See Labeling example

Discussion What new assessment procedure or analysis procedure did you learn about today that you plan to use in the future when conducting assessments or analyzing data?

Psychological Processing Analyzer (PPA) 4. 0 & Memory Processing Analyzer (MPA) 2. 0 1. Download software packages that apply statistical procedures to PSW analysis 2. Conducts PSW among 11 psychological processes or 11 memory processes 3. Conducts PSW among 8 achievement areas 4. Identifies statistically significant intra-individual strengths, weaknesses, deficits, and assets and significant pair differences 5. Identifies consistency between low processes and related areas of low achievement

Composites and Subtests 1. Can enter composite and/or subtest scores 2. Allows scores from cognitive, achievement, rating, and processing scales See Lists 3. Includes latests, updated every year; pre-1999 excluded

Processes Analyzed by the PPA 1. Attention 2. Auditory Processing 3. Executive Functions 4. Fine Motor 5. Fluid Reasoning 6. Long-Term Recall 7. Oral Language 8. Phonological Processing 9. Processing Speed 10. Visual-Spatial Processing 11. Working Memory (WM)

Achievement Areas on the PPA 4. 0 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Basic Reading Skills Reading Fluency Reading Comprehension Math Calculation Math Problem Solving Written Expression Oral Expression Listening Comprehension

Memory Processes • • • Phonological Short-Term Memory Visual-Spatial Short-Term Memory Verbal Working Memory Visual-Spatial Working Memory Executive Working Memory Long-Term Memory Verbal Recall Long-Term Memory Visual-Spatial Recall Long-Term Memory Encoding/Learning Long-Term Memory Consolidation Long-Term Memory Storage/Recognition Long-Term Memory Retrieval Fluency

Composites and Subtests 1. Does not include all composites and subtests in each battery 2. Composite and subtests are limited to those that primarily are measuring that process 3. Some are re-classified based on the primary demands of the task 4. Crystallized intelligence excluded on the PPA

Main Equations 1. Converts all scores (except raw scores) to standard scores with a mean of 100/SD of 15 2. . 01 or. 05 level of significance 3. Normative weakness cutoff options: 80, 85, and 90 4. Difference formulas based on reliability coefficients of composites/subtests 5. Regression toward the mean 6. Predicted score based on mean of other 10 7. Non-unitary scores are flagged 8. Checks processes and achievement for consistency using difference formula

Using the PPA and MPA 1. Select and administer tests for processes Link 2. No minimum number of processes required 3. Enter scaled scores, T-scores, standard scores 4. Program transforms scores to standard scores 5. Option of entering unlisted composites & subtests 6. IQ can be used as predictor

Normative Weakness Options 1. Can select the average range 2. Will apply to all entries 3. Options: 1. 90 -109 2. 85 -114 3. 80 -119 4. This will determine what is identified as normative weaknesses and also the deficits 5. If using the deficit rule, then use 90 -109

Using the Mean or IQ/Cognitive Composite as Predictor of Processes 1. Okay to use IQ as predictor because it has high correlations with most processes 2. Is technically more appropriate because it has known reliability and SEM 3. Use when only weak processes tested 4. Use when only a few processes tested 5. Use when a legal challenge is anticipated 6. Do not use when processes pull down IQ

Entering Unlisted Scores 1. If a composite, type it in uppercase 2. Must know the reliability coefficient and enter it 3. Only one unlisted entry per area 4. Cannot combine with listed scores 5. More entries and combining entries will be allowed in next update in winter 2016

Entering Process, Memory, and Achievement Scores 1. In first column select composites, subtests, or unlisted score 2. Up to 4 of each or only 1 unlisted score 3. Within same area cannot mix composite and subtest scores 4. In second column click on the composite or subtest 5. In third column enter score

Non-Unitary Scores 1. When standard score difference is greater than 22 points 1. Can use a difference of 15 points 2. PPA software uses 22 points 2. Something different is being measured or something is different about the task 3. Investigate further with more testing if it cannot be explained

PPA PSW Achievement Analysis 1. This is a within achievement PSW analysis: what are the strengths and weaknesses among achievement 2. IQ or the mean of the processes is not allowed as the predictor of the achievement scores 3. The mean of the achievement scores is the predictor 4. Other PPA analysis criteria and procedures apply

Checking Pairs for Significance 1. Pairwise comparisons of process scores is not diagnostic but provides more details and intervention ideas 1. Only logically connected process pairs included 2. Achievement and Process pairs are diagnostic 1. Only related pairs included 2. The “no’s” are diagnostic 3. “No” means they are not significantly different and therefore consistent See Example

Processing-Achievement Consistency 1. When the process score and achievement score are consistent, this is evidence that the processing weakness is causing the achievement deficiency 2. When process score significantly higher than achievement, something other than the process is causing the achievement deficiency 3. When the process score is significantly weaker than the achievement, the student is overachieving or other strong processes are being used to compensate

PPA and MPA Reports 1. Results tables, graphs, and a narrative 2. Pairwise comparisons also provided 3. Narrative and colored score charts can be saved to Word document 4. See sample report

Purchasing the PPA 4. 0 • Available at www. psychprocesses. com • For individual use: $129 – A download to your computer – Unlimited use • Five-year site license available based on total student population in district – Cost effective when 10 or more users – Free updates for 5 years – Free training via webinar – Technical support

Free PPA and MPA Manuals For a free PDF copy of the PPA or MPA manuals, email milt@psychprocesses. com

Entering Unlisted Scores 1. If a composite, type it in uppercase 2. Must know the reliability coefficient and enter it 3. Only one unlisted entry per area 4. Cannot combine with listed scores 5. More entries and combining entries will be allowed in next update in winter 2016