Aristotle 384 -322 BCE Ethics

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• Aristotle (384 -322 BCE) Ethics

Aristotle • Stagira (N. Greece), 384 -322 BCE • Probably the best of Plato’s disciples (attended Plato’s Academy for 20 years) • Very prolific author, wrote on logic, philosophy, ethics, physics, biology, psychology, politics, rhetoric • Extremely influential for 2000 years in both “Western” and “Arab” traditions • His ethics is still relevant in contemporary debates (virtue ethics, e. g. A. Mc. Intyre) • Main work on ethics: Nicomachean Ethics 2

Happiness as the ultimate aim • Every activity has a final cause (aim) • The ultimate aim of human life is happiness (also called “flourishing”) • Happiness is connected with our function as rational beings • Happiness is the goal of all human action • Happiness is not pleasure, honor, wealth • Happiness is related to the purpose and the function of human beings 3

Humans as rational animals • The highest and noblest part of human soul is the rational one • Reason is what prevents humans from living like mere animals, because • Reason is what keeps desires in check, while • Animals have no restrictions in the satisfaction of their drive for pleasure • So humans are animals, but with inner control • Shall we call this “freedom”? 4

Morality is about good habits • Happiness can only be attained through the cultivation of virtues • Virtues are character traits that regulate desires • This is what distinguishes humans from (other) animals – however… • This happens by developing good habits • Morality is all about developing good habits 5

How to develop good habits? • It takes voluntary action, because one must take individual responsibility – Actions produced by some external force are not voluntary – Actions performed out of ignorance are not voluntary • A (good) habit is the result of a series of good voluntary actions, i. e. of good decisions • This requires a specific kind of thinking (…) 6

The proper mode of thinking • Morality requires a specific mode of thinking, or a specific kind of intelligence • Moral thinking is not the same as in scientific activity (demonstrative thinking) • It is not aesthetic thinking, as in the arts and crafts • It is practical wisdom/prudence (phronesis) • Phronesis is the ability to see what is right in particular cases: More important than complying with general rules 7

Knowledge is not enough • Aristotle disagrees with Socrates: • Knowing what is right is one thing… • The problem is more often the failure to do what is right! • This is due to weakness of the will (akrasia) • This is not a failure of intelligence 8

Moderation is the key • The famous doctrine of the mean • Good desire-regulating habits are midway between two bad habits • Too much of a good thing hurts: • Too much of control and restraint is also a vice • Ascetism rejected • Virtues and vices can be explained in relation to 5 particular natural urges: 9

The golden mean VIRTUES and VICES: PLEASURE Insensibility Temperance Overindulgence FEAR OF DANGER Cowardice Courage Rashness Spiritlessness Good temper Ill-temper GIVE MONEY Stinginess Generosity Wastefulness SELF-WORTH Self-loathing Self-respect Arrogance ANGER Note: The virtuous mean is not a strict mathematical calculation between two extremes, because it is measured based on the person, not on the thing per se 10

Friendship(s) • Nicomachean Ethics VIII 3 discusses friendship • Three kinds: 1. Friendship for pleasure (when friends have a common interest in an activity that gives them pleasure, i. e. sports). It lasts only as long as the pleasure continues. 2. Friendship based on mutual utility (i. e. business). It lasts only as long as the utility lasts. 11

Friendship for (the) good 3. Friendship for the good: when two people perform common activities not for pleasure or for utility/gain, but only in order to develop the overall goodness of the other. – As the good is never fully realized, this friendship may last forever • Friendships should be reciprocal • Mixed friendships don’t work 12

Who is the happiest man? • The philosopher, of course. Read why on Nicomachean Ethic, ch. X. : ". . . the activity of God, which surpasses all others in blessedness, must be contemplative; and of human activities, therefore, that which is most akin to this must be most of the nature of happiness. . he who exercises his reason and cultivates it seems to be both in the best state of mind and most dear to the gods. . . and he who is that will presumably be also the happiest; so that in this way too the philosopher will more than any other be happy". 13

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