A Brief Introduction to Human Languages Zhao Hai 赵 海 Department of Computer of Science and Engineering, SJTU 上海交通大学 计算机科学与 程系 zhaohai@cs. sjtu. edu. cn
Contents • • Basic Language Types Language Family Chinese and its Dialects Writing System 2
Language Type • Grammar Types of Languages – Analytic language (Chinese, English, French, …) • Subtype: isolating – Synthetic language (Japanese, Russian, German, Hindi, …) • Subtypes: inflectional(屈折语), agglutinative(黏着语) and polysynthetic (多式综合语) 3
Language Type: Definition • Isolating 孤立语(词根语) – No inflectional usage, but functional word and word order for grammar representation – Typical Asian languages, Chinese, Yi, Zhuang, Miao, and Vietnamese languages – 汉语, 彝语, 壮语, 苗语, 越南语 • Agglutinative 黏着语 – – • Each morphologcial form stands for a grammar representation Tukish, Uighur, Finnish, Hungarian, Japanese, Korean 土耳其语, 维吾尔语, 芬兰语, 匈牙利语, 日语, 朝鲜语 Both Uralic乌拉尔语系 and Altaic 阿尔泰语系 language families belong to this type. Inflectional / Inflexional 屈折语 – Each morphological form may have multiple grammar meaning, and the latter may have multiple forms, too. – Word root plays an important role. – Most are from Indo-European 印欧语系 and Semito-Hamitic 闪-含语系 4
Language Type: Definition • Polysynthetic 多式综合语(编插语) – Most American native languages belong to this type. – (Chukchi) , two examples: ta-meynga-levta-part-arkan • (直译语意﹕ 第一–人称–大–头–痛 • 整体语意﹕ 我头痛得厉害. ) man-nake-ure-qepl-uwicwen-mak • (直译语意﹕ 让–我们(宾格) –晚–长–球–玩–我们(主格) • 整体语意﹕ 让我们今晚打一晚的球. ) – More details later 5
Agglutinative 黏着语 Turkish 土耳其語 • • • Avrupa 欧洲 Avrupa-lı 欧洲人 Avrupa-lı-laş 欧洲化 Avrupa-lı-laş-tır 使欧洲化 Avrupa-lı-laş-tır-ama 无法被欧洲化 Avrupa-lı-laş-tır-ama-dık 我们没能被欧洲化 Avrupa-lı-laş-tır-ama-dık-lar-ımız 我们是没能被欧洲化的人们 Avrupa-lı-laş-tır-ama-dık-lar-ımız-dan 在没能被欧洲化的我们中 Avrupa-lı-laş-tır-ama-dık-lar-ımız-dan mı? 在没能被欧洲化的人們中的么？ Avrupa-lı-laş-tır-ama-dık-lar-ımız-dan mısınız? 你们是没能被欧洲化的我们中的么？ 6
Agglutinative 黏着语 Turkish 土耳其語 ev evler eviniz evimde evlerinizin evlerinizdendi evlerinizdenmiş Evinizdeyim. (the) houses your (sing. ) house your (pl. /formal) house my house at my house of your houses from your houses (he/she/it) was (apparently/said to be) from your houses I am at your house. Evinizdeymişim. I was (apparently) at your house. Evinizde miyim? Am I at your house? 7
Agglutinative 黏着语 Japanese 日语 食べ る Eat 吃(現在式, 基本形) 食べ させ る Enable to eat 吃 + 使役詞綴 - 使 / 要求( 某人)吃 食べ させ られ る Be asked to eat 吃 + 使役詞綴 + 被動詞 綴 - 被(其他人)要求(我)吃 食べ させ られ ない Not be asked to eat 吃 + 使役詞綴 + 被動 詞綴 + 否定詞綴 - 不被(其他人)要求(我) 吃 食べ させ られ なかった was not asked to eat 吃 + 使役詞綴 + 被 動詞綴 + 過去否定詞綴 - 曾不被(其他人 )要求(我)吃 8
Polysynthesis 多式综合语 • Classical Ainu of Japan, another polysynthetic, incorporating, and agglutinating language: – – usa-opuspe a-e-yay-ko-tuyma-si-ram-suy-pa various-rumors 1 SG-APL-REFL-APL-far-REFL-heart-sway-ITER 'I wonder about various rumors. ' (lit. 'I keep swaying my heart afar and toward myself over various rumors'. ) • Distribution : – Bantu 班图语 in Africa – Athabaskan 阿萨巴斯卡语 and Inuit-Aleut 因纽特语-阿留申语 in North America and Siberia – Northwest and northeast Caucasus language branches – Basque 巴斯克語 and Finno-Ugric 芬兰-乌戈尔语系 language family in Europe, Gunwinyguan language in north Australia 9
Language Family • A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. • There about 7, 000 languages in the world, it is supposed that each language family has a common ancestor language. • The term 'family' reflects the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics. • In Chinese expression, we have language family“语系”, then language branch “语族”, and then language sub-branch“语支”, at last the language itself. 10
Language Families • In the order of user amount Indo-European 印欧语系 @Europe, America, South and west Asia 2. Sino-Tibet @East Asia 3. Niger–Congo 尼日尔-刚果语系 @ Sub Saharan African 4. Afro-Asiatic 亚非语系, or Semito-Hamitic 闪含语系 @ North Africa and West Asia 5. Austronesian 南岛语系 @ Oceania, Madagascar and South East Asia 6. Dravidian 达罗毗荼语系 @South Asia 7. Altaic 阿尔泰语系 @ central Asia Dispute: Turkic branch and Japanese rank 7 and 8, respectively 8. Austroasiatic 南亚语系 @India and South East Asia 9. Thai-Kadai 壮侗语系 @ South East Asia 10. Finno-Ugric 乌拉尔语系 @ North Asia to North Europe 1. 11
Language Families • Diversity ranking, from 《民族语: 全世界的语言》“Ethnologue”: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Niger–Congo 尼日尔-刚果语系(1, 532) Austronesian 南岛语系(1, 257) Trans New Guinea 跨新几内亚语系(477)dispute Sino-Tibet 汉藏语系(449) Indo-Europe 印欧语系(439) Afro-Asiatic 亚非语系 (375) Nile-Sahara 尼罗-撒哈拉语系(204) Pama–Nyungan 帕马-恩永甘语系(178种语言) dispute Oto-Manguean 奥托-曼格语系(174)(dispute, only 27 by Lyle Campbell ) Austroasiatic 南亚语系(169) Sepik-Ramu 塞皮克-拉穆语系 (100) dispute Thai-Kadai 壮侗语系(92) Tupi 图皮语系(76) Dravidian 达罗毗荼语系(73) Maya 玛雅语系(69) 12
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Indo-European (印欧语系) • History – In 18 th century, Sir William Jones firstly put forward the concept of “Indo. European”. He discovered the similarities among the four oldest languages -- Latin 拉丁语, Greek 希腊语, Sanskrit 梵语 and Persian 波斯语 -- known by the Europeans at that time. – Later, at the beginning of 19 th century, the German linguist Franz Bopp systemically developed theory. – In 19 th century, scholars usually called this language “India-Germanic language family 印度-日耳曼语系” or “Aryan language family 雅利安语系 ”. 15
Indo-European • History (continue) – Later, people found that majority of languages in Europe were associated with this language family, so the name Indo-European was used. • An obvious example: there are strong similarities among ancient spoken language or dialect of Sanskrit 梵语, Lithuania 立陶宛语, Latvia 拉脱维亚 语. – The hypothetical ancestor of these languages is called Indo-European. Today’s scholars proposed two hypothesis about the Urheimat 起始地 of this language: • The Kurgan in the north of the Black Sea 黑海 and the Caspian Sea 里海 (around 4000 BC). • The Anatolian 安那托利亚. (Further back thousands of years than the first hypothesis) 16
Indo-European • Linguistic characteristics – All the origin of languages in Indo-European family is Inflectional 屈折语; – Nouns of the original Indo-European have 3 genders 性, 3 numbers数 and 8 cases 格 (for example, Russian keeps this characteristic relatively intact. ); – Grammatical meaning is expressed with affixes 词缀 and phonetic changes of stem vowel 词干元音音变; 17
Indo-European • Linguistic characteristics (continue) – Nouns and most of adjectives have changes of gender, number and case; – Consistent with their subjects, verbs have to change tense, voice and other styles; – Each language in Indo-European has accent 重音. – But many languages, such as English, have been simplified their morphology 形态 to analytic languages 分析语. 18
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Indo-European • Categories – – – Germanic 日耳曼语族 Romance derived from Italic 意大利语族→衍生出罗曼语族 Celtic 凯尔特语族 Baltic 波罗的语族 Balto-Slavic 斯拉夫语族 Indo-Iranian印度-伊朗语族 Hellenic 希腊语族 Albania 阿尔巴尼亚语族 Armenia 亚美尼亚语族 Anatolian 安那托利亚语族 Tocharian 吐火罗语族 Unclassified 21
Indo-European • Categories (continue) Language Family Language Branch Major Language Minority Language English, German, Yiddish 依地语, Germanic 日耳曼 West North(Scandinavian Romance 罗曼 Frisian 弗里西亚语, Luxemburg 卢森堡语 Afrikaans 阿非利堪斯语 斯堪的那维亚) Italic 意大利 Dutch 荷兰语, Flemish佛兰芒语, Swedish 瑞典语, Danish 丹麦语, Norway 挪威语, Iceland 冰岛语 Pharos 法罗斯语 拉丁语 Catalo 加泰隆语, Italian 意大利语, French 法语, Spanish 西 Provence 普罗旺斯语, 班牙语, Portuguese 葡萄牙语, Romania Rumantsch 拉托—罗曼 语, Sardinian 撒丁语, 罗马尼亚语 Moldavian 摩尔达维亚语 Brythonic 布里索尼 Celtic 凯尔特 Welsh 威尔士语, Breton布列塔尼语 Gàidhlig 戈依迪利 Irish 爱尔兰语(Gaelic 盖尔语) Scotland 苏格兰语(Gaelic 盖尔语) 22
Indo-European • Categories (continue) 古希腊 希腊语 Albania 阿尔巴尼亚语 Russian 俄语, Ukrainian 乌克兰语, Belarusian 白俄罗斯语 West Polish 波兰语, Czech 捷克语, Slovak 斯洛伐克语 South Slavic 斯拉夫 East Bulgarian 保加利亚语, Serbian-Croatian 塞尔维亚—克罗 地亚语, Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语, Macedonian 马其顿语 Lithuanian 立陶宛语, Latvian 拉托维亚语(Leticia 莱蒂语), Armenian亚美尼亚语 Baltic Sea 波罗的海 Iran Indo-Iranian印 度—伊朗 India Sorbian 索布语 (Lusa 卢萨语) Farsi 波斯语, Pashto 普什图语, Kurdish库尔德语, Baluchi 俾路支语, Tajik 塔吉克语, Ossetian 奥塞梯语 Sanskrit 梵语, Hindi 印地语, Urdu 乌尔都语, Bengali 孟加 Billy 比利语, 拉语, Punjabi 旁遮普语, Malatya 马拉蒂语, Gujarati 古吉 Romany 吉普 拉特语, Bihari 比哈尔语, Rajasthani 拉贾斯坦语, Oriya 奥 赛语, 里亚语, Assamese 阿萨姆语, Kashmiri 克什米尔语, Nepali Maldivian马尔 尼泊尔语, Sindhi 信德语, Sinhala 僧伽罗语 代夫语 23
Non Indo-European languages of Europe • Majority of Europe languages belong to Indo-European, except for: Uralic: Hungarian 匈牙利语, Estonian 爱沙尼亚语, Finnish 芬兰语 and Sami 萨米语(Lapp 拉普语). – Caucasian – Basque: isolated – Etruscan: isolated, already died (north central of Italy, 1000 BC or later) – • Today’s Maltese马耳他语 and Turkish土耳其语 are Europe languages, but they are not originated in Europe. – Maltese is inherited from Arabic 阿拉伯语 – Turkish belongs to the Altaic Turkic 阿尔泰语系突厥语族. 24
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Sino-Tibetan (汉藏语系) • Scope and Controversy – There academic debates about Sino-Tibetan’s classification and ownership. – In China, Sino-Tibetan is divided into four language families: • Chinese汉语族, • Zhuang-Dong壮侗语族 (also called Kam-Tai侗台语族, Be-Kam-Tai 侗泰语族, Tai台语族), • Hmong–Mien苗瑶语族, and • Tibeto-Burman藏缅语族. – Western scholars generally believe that Hmong-Mien and Zhuang-Dong do not belong to Sino-Tibetan. 26
Sino-Tibetan (汉藏语系) • Scope and Controversy (continue) – France scholar Laurent Sagart proposed that Sino-Tibetan and Austronesian 南岛语系 have genetic relationship 发生学关系, which has been endorsed by the well-known Chinese linguist Gongwan Xing 邢公畹. – Recently, Yeniseian 叶尼塞语系 is also considered to have relation with Sino-Tibetan. – Few scholars, such as Christopher Beckwith and Roy Andrew Miller, do not recognize the genetic relationship between Tibeto -Burman and Sino-Tibetan. 27
Sino-Tibetan • Typical features of Sino-Tibetan languages – – – Many are isolated languages; Tones 声调; Monosyllabic roots occupy the majority of lexicon ; Quantifiers 量词; Express grammatical meanings with function words and word orders. 28
Sino-Tibetan • Most linguists believe that pronunciation and grammar of the original Sino -Tibetan have similarity with r. Gyalrong 嘉绒语: both of them have no explicit tone system, have compound consonant 复辅音 and rich verb forms. • Early in 1954, French scholar Audrey Chur found that the tone of Chinese did not exist at its beginning. – Chinese in Warring States Period 战国时代 has no tone. – Leter the coda 韵尾 –s and glottal stop 喉塞音 were respectively turned into falling and rising tones in Southern and Northern Dynasties 南北朝. • According to principles of historical linguistics, the existence of tones, word orders, syllable structure and so on, can not support or deny the hypothesis of homologous of different languages, because these features can be easily spreadto other language families. • Only common form components (prefix, suffix, infix, alternating vowels, etc. ) and basic vocabulary can guarantee this relationship. 29
r. Gyalrong (嘉绒语) • The r. Gyalrong (Jiarong, Gyarung) belongs to the r. Gyalrong branch of the Tibeto-Burman 藏缅语族 of Sino-Tibetan 汉藏 语系, and some scholars classify it into Qiangic branch 羌语支. • It is popular in the Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Aba Tibetan Qiang Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan Province. 甘孜 和 阿坝 – References from ROC to 1953 called the ethnic of r. Gyalrong region as r. Gyalrong. – In the 1950 s, the Central Institute for Nationalities 中央民族学院 opened “r. Gyalrong language research class”, created r. Gyalrong Pinyin characters that record the local folk stories. – In 1954, r. Gyalrong people was recognized as Tibetan, then it come to the recognition of “r. Gyalrong Tibetan”. – Although “r. Gyalrong” was recognized as Tibetan, in the “Language Atlas of China” 《中国语言地图集》 which on the behalf of Chinese official views, Tibetan has not yet covered r. Gyalrong. 30
r. Gyalrong (嘉绒语) • r. Gyalrong is a very old language and the “living fossil” of the Sino-Tibetan. It retains some phonetic forms (such as compound consonant) and word-building measures of the proto Sino-Tibetan language. • r. Gyalrong has a quite rich verb forms. Except for tense, its verb also includes personal category: the gender and the number of verb are consistent with subject/object. • In Sino-Tibetan, in addition to r. Gyalrong, many other languages shows verb’s personal markers, such as Jingpo 景颇语. • r. Gyalrong is very helpful for understanding pronunciation and grammar of ancient Chinese and proto Sino-Tibetan languages. 31
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History of Sino-Tibetan • In 1823, German Julius Klaproth proposed homologous relationship among the basic vocabularies of Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese, while Thai and Vietnamese are not the same. However, not until the 20 th century, scholars did not re-value his research. • The language classifications in 19 th century mostly based on the consideration of race and ethnic issues, such as Nathan Brown proposed the concept of “Indochina language” in 1837, which was referred to all the oriental languages including Japanese and Austronesian 南岛语, except for Altaic 阿尔泰语 and Dravidian 达罗毗荼语. 33
History of Sino-Tibetan • Modern Sino-Tibetan was proposed by Jean Przyluski in 1924, his classification is as follows: – Tibeto-Burman 藏缅语 – Sino-Tai 汉台语 • (Tai includes Kam-Tai 侗台语 and Hmong–Mien苗瑶语) • On the above basis, we have a well-accepted classification in China: – Chinese 汉语 – Tibeto-Burman 藏缅语族 – Zhuang-Dong 壮侗语族 – Hmong–Mien 苗瑶语族 34
History of Sino-Tibetan • In the late 20 th century, most western scholars excluded the Kam-Tai 侗台语 and Hmong–Mien 苗瑶语, but retained the dichotomy of Chinese and Tibeto-Burman 藏缅语, such as classifications by Matisoff, Bradley 1997, Thurgood 杜冠名 2003: • • Chinese 汉语 Tibeto-Burman 藏缅语族 • Other scholars do not agree with this dichotomy system. Their points , – Chinese may be relatively close to the Tibetan in the Sino-Tibetan family tree, but the relationship between the Chinese and Burmese 缅 甸语 or Qiang 羌语 is not so close. • Van Driem (2001) combined Chinese and Tibetan into Sino-Tibetan, as a branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family 藏缅语系. 35
Sino-Tibetan languages • • # 1 Sinitic 汉语族 # 2 Tibeto-Burman 藏缅语族 – * 2. 1 Bai 白语 – * 2. 2 Himalayan 喜马拉雅语群 – * 2. 3 Sal 萨尔语群 – * 2. 4 Karen 克伦语支 – * 2. 5 Kuki-Chin-Naga 库基-钦-那加语言 – * 2. 6 Myanmar Yi language 缅彝语群 – * 2. 7 Metairie 梅泰语 – * 2. 8 Miquel 米基尔语 – * 2. 9 Mru – * 2. 10 Tani 达尼语支 – * 2. 11 Midzu 格曼语支 – * 2. 12 Nungish 侬语支 – * 2. 13 Burmo-Qiangic 党项-羌语群 – * 2. 14 Tujia 土家语 – * 2. 15 West Tibet 西吐蕃 – * 2. 16 Hruso – * 2. 17 Unclassified Tibeto-Burman language 36
Afro-asiatic (亚非语系) • Afro-Asiatic, also known as African - Asian languages language family, formerly known Semitic – Hamitic 闪含 或 闪米特-含米特, mainly located in the Arabian Peninsula of western Asia and North Africa. • The name, Semitic - Hamitic (Hamito-Semitic), which is originated from the names of two sons of Noah in the legendary of "Bible". The Bible says that one son Shem was the ancestor of Hebrew and Assyrian 亚述人, another son Ham is the ancestor of African. • Major common features of Afro-Asiatic languages, – Inflected language 屈折语 – not only voiceless and voiced consonants, but also heavy consonants exist, the latter forms in the back of mouth and throat. – Verb has person prefix – Case and gender are used, but simpler than that in Indo-European – Word roots consist of consonants 37
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Afro-Asiatic branches (亚非语系) • • • • • * Berber 柏柏尔语族 o East Berber 东柏柏尔语支 o Guanche语支 o North Berber 北柏柏尔语 支 o Tamasheke 塔马舍克语支 o Zenaga 哲纳加语 * Chadic 乍得语族 o Sibiu – Mandala 比乌-曼达 拉语支 o East Chad东乍得语支 o Masa语支 o West Chad西乍得语支 + Hausa 豪萨语, Hausa 豪撒语 * Cushitic 库希特语族 * Egyptian 埃及语族 o Egyptian (extinct)埃及语 o Coptic (extinct) 科普特语( 已灭绝) * Omotic 奥摩语族 • • • • * Semitic 闪米特语族 o East Semitic 东闪米特语支 o Central Semitic 中闪米特语支 + Aramaic 亚拉姆语 + Turoyo 图罗尤语 + Mandianyu 曼底安语 + Classical Syriac 古典叙利亚语 + Arabic 阿拉伯语 + Maltese 马耳他语 + Ancient Hebrew 古希伯来语 + Hebrew (extinct) 撒马利亚语 o South Semitic 南闪米特语支 • • * Unclassified o Birale 41
Arabic (阿拉伯语) 42
Arabic • • • Arabic is now the official language of 27 Asian and African countries and 4 international organizations. The number of population treat Arabic as their mother tongue is more than 210 million, while Arabic is the official language for the worldwide religious, islam. Arabic has a broad distribution, so each region has its own dialect, while the “standard” Arabic is based on Koran(Qoran) 古兰经 of Islam. 43
Austronesian (南岛语系) • The so-called “Austronesia” consists of the root “auster” means south wind from Latin word and “nêsos” means island from Greek word by Wilhelm Schmidt in 1899, so Austronesia was translated into “south island” 南岛. • Chinese borrowed this Japanese invented word. • Regions use Austronesia include Taiwan, the Philippines, Borneo, Indonesia, Madagascar, New Guinea, New Zealand, Hawaii, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Malay language of the Malay Peninsular (Bahasa Melayu), Cham lanauge of Vietnam and Khmer in Indochina and the Moken/Moklen of Thailand. • It distributes from the north of Taiwan, south of New Zealand, west of Madagascar, east of Easter Island of Chile. 44
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Austronesian(南岛语系) • Austronesian distributes broadly and has lots of languages. • Austronesian has 1262 kinds of languages (Ethnologue: Languages of the World 2004). • Due to immigration and the modern imperialistic colonization, in the region of Austronesian, part of islands began to use non- Austronesian languages. – Taiwan as an example, in addition to Pingpu 平埔族语言 and Gaoshan 高山族语言, due to the immigrants of Ming and Qing dynasty in 17 th/18 th century and Japanese colonization in 19 th century, Taiwan now adopts different languages, such as Chinese, Chinese dialects Hokkien 闽南语 and Hakka 客家话, and Japanese. – Philippine, once colonized by Spain and the United States, Hawaii colonized and later absorbed by the United States, Australia / New Zealand undertook British colonization, Indonesia colonized by Dutch, Malaysia colonized by British, Vietnam and Cambodia were colonized by the French, etc. 46
Austronesian(南岛语系) • Austronesian family can be divided into two sub-families: – Formosan languages 台湾原住民语 • 23 languages, which can be further divided into three categories. • Atayalic 泰雅语, Paiwanic 排湾语, Tsouic 邹语. – Malayo-Polynesian languages 马来-波利尼西亚语 • 1239 languages, which can be further divided into – Central- Eastern Malayo-Polynesian 中东部马来-波利尼西亚语, – Western Malayo-Polynesian 西部马来-波利尼西亚语, and – others two unclassified languages. 47
Austronesian(南岛语系) • For the relationship of Austronesian and Malayo-Polynesian 马来-波利 尼西亚语, there are other sayings: • One – Austronesian is divided into 10 sub-families, 9 are in Taiwan and the last one is Malayo-Polynesian. – Malayo-Polynesian is regarded as a sub-family of Austronesian, too. • Other opinions – Academia Sinica, Taiwan(1996): “Austronesian, also known as Malay. Polynesian, is the only large language family distributed on islands”. 48
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Dravida (达罗毗荼语系) • Dravida language family is located in south and west of India: – Tamil Nadu 泰米尔纳德邦, – Karnataka卡纳塔克邦, – Andhra 安得拉邦, – Kerala 喀拉拉邦, – West Bengal 西孟加拉邦 and – a small region in Pakistan. • It includes 75 languages among of which Malayalam马拉雅拉姆语 , Tamil 泰米尔语, Telugu泰卢固语, Kannada卡纳达 are regard as official language. • Tamil is official language of Sri Lanka and Singapore. • The Dravida can be found in Sindh 信德省, Baluchistan 俾路支斯坦 of Pakistan and Afghanistan 阿富汗. 50
Dravida (达罗毗荼语系) 51
Altaic (阿尔泰语系) • Altaic language family include 60 languages which have about 250 million population. It mainly distributes in central Asia and adjacent regions. It mainly forms by various periods of the languages from intruder and the local languages. • From the Finnish linguist Ramsted in 20 th century, modern Russian linguist Starostin and so on. Altaic includes four branches: – Turkic 突厥语族, Mongolian 蒙古语族, Tungusic通古斯语族 and South Korea and Japan – Okinawa 韩日-琉球语族 (dispute). – Some linguists put Altaic 阿尔泰语系 and Uralic 乌拉尔语系 into the Ural-Altaic. • Turkic 突厥语族, Mongolian 蒙古语族 and Tungusic通古斯语族 have lots of common characteristics, regardless of whether they are the evidence of homology or they are the result of communications between different peoples. 52
Dispute on the Altaic • It is still controversial for the existence of Altaic. • Some linguists believe that the Turkic 突厥语族, Mongolian 蒙古语族, Tungusic 通古斯语族 do not have the same origination. – They argued that although that these language families have many things in common on grammar and vocabulary, these similarities were resulted from the long-term communication, mutual integration and mutual borrowing, rather than the original features left by the same ancestor language. – It is generally believed that Mongolian 蒙古语 borrowed vocabulary and grammatical forms from Turkic 突厥语. • At present, the problem is still in discussion. 53
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Ownership of Japanese and Korean Five different opinions • First. Japanese belongs to Altaic, as with significant Altaic language features. – Positive: 1. Liquid 流音 will not appear on the first syllables of native word. 2. Vowel harmony 元音和谐律 3. Agglutinative language 黏着语 – Negative: 1. Japanese has few homologous vocabularies with other Altaic languages. 2. Vowel harmony is not the patent of Altai language family 阿尔泰语系. – Chukchi of Chukotko Kamchatkan language family 楚科奇-堪察加语系, – many languages of Africa Niger Congo language family尼日尔-刚果语系, Do-win word多威 语, IBO伊博语, and – many Bantu languages班图语族also have vowel harmony phenomenon. 3. Other language families such as Ural 乌拉尔语系 (Finnish芬兰语 , Hungarian匈牙利语), Dravida达罗毗荼语系 (Tamil 泰米尔语) also have agglutinative characteristics. 56
Ownership of Japanese and Korean 5 opinions (continue) • • • Second. Japanese and Korean belong to a new language family. – Positive • Grammars of Korean and Japanese have striking similarities. • Both use SOV word order and were influenced by ancient Chinese. • Japanese and Korean are being a new language family which is mixed by Altai and Sino Tibetan. – Negative • the lack of paronym words 同源词 between Japanese and Korean. Third. Japanese and Ryukyuan 琉球语 belong to a new language family, that is the Japanese language family. – Because the Japanese and Ryukyuan exactly have many similarities, it has not been widely recognized. Fourth. Japanese and Korean are isolated language, and they are not related the current language families. – Negative • Lack of the "paronym words". 57
Ownership of Japanese and Korean 5 opinions (continue) • 5. Japanese belongs to Tibeto-Burman 藏缅语族 of Sino-Tibetan language family 汉藏语系. Japanese scholars represented by Tatsuo Nishida believe that – Positive: word order of Japanese is the same as Burmese, and approximately the similar vocabularies or phonologies, so they advocated Japanese should belong to the Tibeto-Burman. – Negative: It is distant between Japan and Burma, and there crosses the Austronesian 南岛语系 and Manchu-Tungusic 满-通古斯语族 regions between Japan and Burma, therefore such views mostly not caught too much attentions. • In addition to the above five views, and a few people believe that the Japanese should belong to the Austronesian 南岛语系. Recently, a proposal is about to construct a new language family (South Korea and Japan-Ryukyu language韩日-琉球语族) includes the Korean 朝鲜语 , Ryukyuan 琉球语 and Japanese. This view is obviously the mixture of the first and second opinions, but the people with this opinion still need to face the problem of " paronym words". • 58
Kam-Tai, Kadai (侗台语系) • Kam-Tai language family, also known as Zhuang-Dong, Tai. Kadai languages, has 70 languages, mainly distributes in the regions of Southeast Asia and southern China. • The language family in China is called “Kam-Tai ” (or “Zhuang. Dong”, “Zhuang-Tai”, “Qian-Tai”, which is considered as – a part of the Sino-Tibetan language family, but – it was regarded as an independent language family internationally. • There exists close relationship between Kam-Tai and Austronesian. Some researchers suggest that put them together to constitute an “Austro-Thai language family 澳泰语系”. • Generally, the birthplace of Kam-Tai is Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangxi, Guangdong in China. From the differences of the basic vocabulary, differentiation of Kam-Tai can be traced back from 2500 to 3000 years ago. 59
Kam-Tai, Kadai (侗台语系) • Western scholars called Kam-Tai as Tai-Kadai Languages 台-卡 岱语系 for a long term. • Kadai is created by Paul K. Benedict 白保罗. In Kadai, – Ka means Kra languages 仡央语 (including Kláo 仡佬语 and Bouxyaeŋz 布央语 ) and – Dai means Li languages 黎语. • Today, it is generally considered the connection between Tai and Li branches is closer than that between Kara and Li branches, so the name Tai-Kadai is inappropriate. – Chinese-Thai linguist Weera Ostapirat 许家平 used "Kra. Dai" to replace Tai-Kadai. 60
Brief history of Kam-Tai • From 19 th to 20 th century, the category of Sino. Tibetan 汉藏语系 was proposed from scratch, its scope and level become gradually clear. – The understanding difference of western and eastern scholars was not too significant. – Fanggui Li李方桂 was the most representative scholar. In a paper in 1973, he classified the Sino-Tibetan into Chinese 汉语 , Kam-Tai, Miao -Yao 苗瑶语族 and Tibeto-Burman 藏缅语族. – Later, America scholar Paul K. Benedict proposed that Kam-Tai and Miao-Yao did not belong to Sino-Tibetan (Benedict 1942). – However, Li’s opinion seams to be more dominant and becomes main Sino-Tibetan classification method of linguists in the next decades. 61
Brief history of Kam-Tai • • After two import books: “An Introduction to Sino-Tibetan Languages 汉藏语 概要” (Benedict 1972) and “Austro-Thai Language and Culture 澳泰语：语言 和文化” (Benedict 1975) were published, – Benedict’s opinions began to be accepted by main linguists. – Western scholars consistently began to narrow the scope of Sino-Tibetan, and no longer classified the Zhuang-Dong and Miao-Yao into Sino-Tibetan. As an anthropologist, the reason why Benedict did not classified Zhuang-Dong and Miao-Yao into Sino-Tibetan mainly because of the proposed concept of “Southeast Asian cultural flow 东南亚文化流”, in which the core idea is that – ethnic groups of the prehistoric era in this area were equivalent in culture and the flow of civilization cannot be in a single way. 史前该地区的民族 种群在文化上是平等的，因此，文化的流向不可能是单向的. – Facing with the possible interlocking relationship of Chinese, Kam-Tai and Miao-Yao, most of Chinese scholars only focused on the Chinese influence on these languages, but ignore these languages’ influences on Chinese itself. 62
Brief history of Kam-Tai(continue) • This so-called Benedict’s “Southeast Asia” is not the modern understanding southeast Asian countries outside China, but the vast region of south of the Yangtz in prehistoric era, including Hainan, Yunnan, Guangxi, Guizhou, Guangdong, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Taiwan and Indochina etc. • At that time, these regions lived various ethnic groups, most of which were non “Huaxia” (Chinese). These peoples contacted different ethnic cultures and languages a long time ago. These groups included Meng – Khmer 孟-高棉语族, Austronesian 南岛语 and Sino-Tibetan 汉藏语 (Tibeto-Burman 藏缅语). • On the basis of the above work, linguists established “Kam-Tai language family” afterwards, (Edmondson 1990 -1991; Edmondson and Solnit, 1997). 63
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Uralic (乌拉尔语系) • • The Ural language family, including 20 language and 20 million people from northwest Europe to northeast Asian. The largest language of Ural is Finland-Finno Ugric 芬兰-乌戈尔语族 includes Hungarian 匈牙利语, Finnish 芬兰语 and Estonia 爱沙尼亚语. Some linguists classified the Ural language family and the Altai language family into Ural Altai language family. 65
The Language of China • Reference – "Chinese language 中国的语言“ 2008, the Commercial Press 商务印 书馆 – Chief editors: Hongkai Sun 孙宏开, Zengyi Hu 胡增益, Xingzhu Huang 黄行主 from Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology, Chinese Sociology Academy. – More than 90 domestic minority linguistics experts jointly wrote this book. • This book cites 129 languages from five language families within Chinese territory, including – Sino-Tibetan 汉藏语 系(76), Altai阿尔泰语系 (21), Austronesian南岛 语系(16), South Asian南亚语系(9), Indo European印欧语系(1), and mix language family混合语系 (5) and Korean (1), which is still difficult to define its appropriate language family. 66
The Language of China • In the 129 languages, 117 languages have been already or nearly. 21 languages are endangered, 64 languages have been being endangered, 24 languages are close to be endangered and 8 languages have no communicative function. – A few in these languages, numbers of speakers are less than 1000. – For example, Giu木佬语, only two old people more than 80 years old can speak； – Numbers of Manchu 满语, Hezhen 赫哲语, Sulong 苏龙语, Xiandao 仙岛语 and so on are less than 100, respectively. 67
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Chinese Dialects language or dialect? • There are huge differences among different Chinese oral dialects. These dialects are also quite different from the modern standard Chinese, Madarin. – Geographically, the differences of Chinese dialects are obvious. • For Mandarin area, even if separated by hundreds of kilometers, people also can understand each other; but • in some other dialect regions, separated by only 10 kilometers, communication cannot be made with each other; • even in a same city, people from the south and north can not communicate with their own dialects. – The majority of Chinese dialects have no mature written systems, so people from different places write text on a high degree of unity by using classical and modern Chinese writing system文言和近代白话体系. 69
Chinese Dialects language or dialect? • There have been debates of being language or dialect in the history of China. • Wu, Min, Cantonese were takend as Chinese dialects for thousands of years, but • A few treated them as languages. – One cited the Western Han Dynasty Yang Xiong‘s 扬雄 saying "輶轩使者绝代语释别国方言" and said that Cantonese was regarded a dialect at that time, but "word" only was referred to spoken language at Yang’s times, rather than language on the use of modern Chinese. 70
Chinese Dialects language or dialect? • In modern times, western linguistics was introduced into China. From the western linguistics, if two dialect speakers cannot smoothly communicate, then the two dialects should be called languages. • Different Chinese language speakers usually can not communicate with each other, so there exists the debate whether Wu, Min, Cantonese is a dialect or language. – In order to show the special situation of Chinese language, scholars created terms, regionalect or topolect, to express different Chinese languages(or "Chinese dialects"). – Some dialects of Japanese, such as Tsugaru dialect 津轻方言 and Akita dialect 秋田方言 and so on, also have huge differences with standard language so that it is generally difficult to understand, but Japanese scholars still called them "dialects". 71
Chinese Dialects language or dialect? • Chinese dialects form the Chinese language branch. – Linguists who focus on writing analysis tend to think that the Chinese language branch contains only one language: Chinese , and then Chinese language is divided into various dialects ； – Linguists who focus on speaking analysis tend to think that the Chinese language branch contains eight languages: Cantonese, Hakka, Min, Wu, Gan, Mandarin, Xiang, Jin. Because the differences in pronunciations among these dialects are no less than the differences between English and German that both belong to Germanic branch. • Chinese linguists and most sinologists such as Jerry Norman all support the former opinion, but • many scholars outside China support the latter. The supporters for the latter opinion regard that Chinese is not a single language, but a group of interconnected similar languages. 72
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Mandarin(官话) the name • Mandarin Name: Mandarin tongue 官话 and northern tongue 北方话. For those who consider Mandarin as dialect but not independent language, dialect will be added behind the name, namely Mandarin dialect 官话方言 and northern dialect北方方言. – In Chinese dialectology community, the usage of ”northern tongue” is less frequent than “northern dialect". – “Northern tongue" can also refer to Mandarin in parts of North China. – From later 1980 th, ” Mandarin” was used in the China publications. " northern tongue" and "northern dialect" have withdrawn from the academic field. • • • Early "Mandarin" was the official standard language of Chinese. People began to call it “national language” in 1909. In 1956, standard Chinese was renamed as Pu Tong Hua. The word ” Mandarin” evolved into the meaning of "Mandarin dialect". Chinese in north China mainly use Mandarin dialects, and non-Mandarin dialects are most in South China, so “Mandarin dialect” was once called “northern dialect”. However, southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai 江淮 Mandarin are actually both in the South. • 75
Mandarin(官话) the name • As China‘s standard language, Mandarin was divided into north and south branches since the Eastern Jin 东晋 and the Northern and Southern Dynasties. • Nanjing Mandarin which is on the basis of Central Plains tones 中原雅音 of earliest Jin Dynasty had been treated as the official language of China for a long time. • The Ming 明 Dynasty located its capital in Nanjing 南京. “壹以中原雅音 为正”, namely Nanjing tone is the basic tone system of Chinese, and Nanjing tongue is the national standard language. • The northern Mandarin replaced the Jianghuai Mandarin as the standard official language until the mid Qing 清 Dynasty. During Ming and Qing Dynasties Western Missionaries西方传教士 most stick to the Nanjing Mandarin. • Until the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China determined the new tone for standard Chinese phonology, Beijing Mandarin became the standard official language of China. 76
Mandarin • Northeast-Beijing Mandarin is today’s basis of modern standard Chinese (mainland China called Mandarin, Taiwan called national language, Singapore and Malaysia are called Chinese). • Mandarin dialect speakers occupied about 70% of total Chinese population. • The obvious features of Mandarin include: • most consonant ending that existed in ancient Chinese “-p, -t, -k, -m, -n, ng”, now only remains “-n, -ng”. • Most of the Mandarin dialects do not have entering tone. • Mandarin tones are less than other dialects. Therefore, Mandarin contains a large number of homophones 同音字 and compound words复合词, which is also relatively rare in other dialects. 77
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Wu 吴语 • • • Wu, 8. 4% of Chinese speakers. Pronunciation is quite different from modern Madarin, with a specular vocabulary and grammar. The novel, Sing Song Girls of Shanghai, 《海上花列传》 , was written in Wu dialect and Madarin. Non Wu speakers cannot fully understand it. 79
Hakka, Kejia 客家话 • • • Hakka, in Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian provinces, represented by Mei County tongue 梅县话. Hakka come into being from north immigrates during Tang and Song dynasties 唐宋. Therefore Hakka remains a great deal of speaking features in mid-age Chinese. Hakka was one of popular dialects used by oversea Chinese 5% of Chinese population. 80
Min 闽语 • Min dialect contains elements of ancient Chinese, and Min-Yue language 闽越语 remains as well. • Min originated from ancient Wu. • As the first dialect that separated from ancient Chinese, it has a serious internal diversity. • Fujian is its typical speaking area. • Oversea Chinese also broadly use this dialect, especially, Chaoxian tongue. 潮汕话 • Fujian tongue for oversea Chinese is referred to Quanzhang part of South Min dialect, and Taiwan tongue means Fujian tongue. • 4. 5% of Chinese population. 81
Min 闽语 South Min Dialect • Taiwan 台湾 – Majority of Taiwan language is South Min dialect – The first mother tongue, the second used language. – 73% of Taiwan population can speak South Min dialect according to 2009 annual of ROC. – 由于地域与大陆区隔且曾为日本殖民地，因此部分语言 已融入日语与现代标准汉语用法（如：台湾称煤气为瓦 斯从日文发音ガス而来，而闽南语也音近日语。 82
Min 闽语 South Min Dialect • Southeast Asia 东南亚 Brunei 文莱, Chinese 45，800, most are Hokkian 福建人 Myanmar 缅甸, Chinese 900，000, Hokkian 40％，Hainanese 3％ Indonesia 印尼, Chinese 6 million, half are Hokkian Laos 老挝, Chinese 5000, nearly 90％ are from Chaozhou 潮州 Malaysia 马来西亚, Chinese 6 million，in which Hokkian 2 million. Philippine 菲律宾, Chinese 1 million， 90% are Hokkian Singpore 新加坡, Chinese 2 million， Hokkian 900, 000, Chaozhou 潮州 470, 000, Hainanese 海南人 150, 000. 71% of Chinese are South Min dialect speakers. – Thailand 泰国, Chinese 6 million , Chaozhou 潮州人 40％， Hainanese 海南 人 18％， Hokkian 福建人 16％ – Vietnam 越南, Chinese 1 million ， Chaozhou潮州人 34％， Hokkian 福建 人 6％， Hainanese 海南人 2％ – – – – • South Min Dialect speakers all around the world are about 80 million. 83
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Cantonese 粤语 • Cantonese 粤语, or 白话, is represented by Guangzhou tongue 广 州话（广府话）. • Used in Guangzhou province, Hong Kong, and oversea Chinese community. • Madarin has four tones, but Cantonese has 9. • More features of ancient Chinese remains in Cantonese. – Six consonant tails, [-p]、[-t]、[-k]、[-m]、[-ng] – Compared to mid-age Chinese in Sui-Tang 隋唐 dynasties, Cantonese has the most matching rhyme system. • Global Cantonese speakers are more than 100 million. – Hong Kong 85
Cantonese 粤语 even more • Hong Kong Cantonese vs. Guangzhou Cantonese – Subtle difference due to lazy speaking of Hong Kong and standardizing movement in Hong Kong. – Smooth communication • Wuyi sub-dialect 五邑地区（新会、台山、开平、恩平、鹤山） – One who only can understand Guangzhou tongue generally only can understand half of Wuyi sub-dialect. • Goulou Cantonese, in southeast Guangxi Province, “勾漏粤语” – Ten tones – Two voice consonant, [b]、[d] – Difficult to communicate with other Cantonese speakers. 86
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Xiang 湘语 • • • Xiang 湘语，or Hunan tongue 湖南话, most in Hunan province, represented by Changsha and Shuangfeng tongues, 长沙话 双峰话 5% of Chinese population. Speak Xiang, no difference for the pairs – • n-/l-, hu-/f-, ch-/q-, ong/eng New and old Xiangs 新湘语和老湘语 – New Xiang includes Changsha 长沙话, Xiangtan 湘潭话, Yueyang 岳阳话, Yiyang 益阳话 etc – Old Xiang 老湘语 includes Hengyang 衡阳话, Xiangxiang 湘乡话, Shaoyang 邵阳话 etc – New Xiang received influence of Madarin and Gan dialect 官话和赣语. – Old Xiang received less external influence. – Difficult to communicate between Old and New Xiangs. • Overall, southeast Madarin and New Xiang influenced with each other as both come into being, therefore they share similarities. 88
Gan 赣语 • Gan 赣语, centered in Jiangxi Province • 20 -50 million people use Gan, 3% of Chinese population. • Nine sub-dialects can be found inside Gan, represented by Nanchang tongue 南昌话. • Easy to understand with each other between sub-dialects. • No Jiangxi tongue, as Gan used outside Jiangxi such as Hubei, Hunan, and Jiangxi includes Hakka, Wu, Jianghuai Madarin speakers. 89
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Other Obvious Dialects 其它大方言 • Dispute – Jin 晋语：most Shanxi Province and northwest Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, … • Different pronunciation from Madarin • Quite a few regarded it as Madarin – Ping 平话：parts of Guangxi, it is said • The south part 南部方言（Guinan 桂南平话）belongs to Cantonese • The north part 北部方言（Guibei 桂北平话） as independent native tongue. – Hui 徽语：South Anhui province • Quite a few regarded as Wu or Gan dialects. 91
Jin 晋语 92
Other Dialects • Other dialects(未归片的方言) – Waxiang dialect (瓦乡话)（Northwest of Hunan） – Yuebei dialect (粤北土话) 93
World Characters • • • Abjact(輔音音素文字)： – Arabic alphabet(Arabic, Farsi), Hebrew alphabet(Hebrew language), other Abugida ： – Brahmi alphabet • Devanagari (天城体)： Hindi 、 Sanskrit 、Nepali • Tibetan Alphabet （藏语字母）（ Tibetan e. g. ） • Thai Letter（泰語字母）（Thai） – other Alphabet(全音素文字)： – Latin alphabet（ Latin 、English、German、French e. g）， – Cyrillic alphabet(西里爾字母)（Russian e. g. ）， – Korean alphabet （ Korean ）， – Greek alphabet （Greek） – other syllabic language(音節文字)： Kana(假名五十音)(Japanese)，other Logogram（意音文字）： Chinese character （Chinese、Japanese、Korean） 94
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Chinese Characters hanzi 汉字 • The most popular writing system, 4000 years • The longest writing system that is still under use, more than 1. 5 billion 98
Sinosphere • • Chinese characters, kanji, well developed logograms, the oldest continuously used system of writing in the world, are still used in China, Vietnam, Korea peninsular, Japan and Singapore, Malaysia. The Sinosphere, is unofficially referred to regions that have been historically or culturally influenced by China.
Alphabetization of languages in Sinosphere (red means official position) China etc Japan Romanization alphabets Chinese pinyin Romanization scheme Romanization for Japanese scheme for Korean National alphabets Chinese characters Hanzi(汉 字) Kanji(漢字) Kana(假名) Korea Vietnam Chu Quoc Ngu (國语 字) hangul hanja(漢字) Hantu / Chu Nom (漢字/字喃)
Timeline of Alphabetic Characters 字母文字 进化树 • • • • The middle period of bronze culture 青銅中期文化時期 19 -15 th century B. C. Ugarit alphabet 乌加里特字母 15 th century B. C. Proto Canaanite alphabet 原始迦南字母 12 th century B. C. Phoenician alphabet 腓尼基字母 12 th century B. C. Ancient Hebrew alphabet 古希伯來字母 10 th century B. C. Samaritan alphabet 撒馬利亞字母 6 th century B. C. Aramaic alphabet 亞蘭字母 9 th century B. C. Kharosthi alphabet 佉卢文 4 th century B. C. Brahmi 婆羅米文 4 th century B. C. Brahmi characters 婆羅米系文字 Devanagari alphabet 天城文 13 th century A. D. Bengali 孟加拉文 11 th century A. D. Sinhala 僧伽羅文 8 th century A. D. Siddham 悉曇文 101
Timeline of Alphabetic Characters 字母文字 进化树 • • • Tibetan 藏文 7 th century A. D. Pagba 八思巴文 13 th century A. D. Thai alphabet 泰語字母 13 th century A. D. Hebrew alphabet 希伯來字母 3 th century B. C. Syriac alphabet 敘利亞字母 2 th century B. C. Sogdian 粟特文 3 th century A. D. Ancient Turkic 古突厥文 6 th century A. D. Uighur 回鶻文 8 th century A. D. Mongolian 蒙古文 1204 A. D. Nabataean alphabet 納巴泰字母 2 th century B. C. Arabic alphabet 阿拉伯字母 4 th century A. D. Avesta alphabet 阿維斯塔字母 4 -6 th century A. D. 102
Timeline of Alphabetic Characters 字母文字 进化树 • • • • Greek alphabet 希臘字母 9 th century B. C. Etruscan alphabet 埃特魯斯坎字母 8 th century B. C. Latin alphabet 拉丁字母 7 th century B. C. Runic alphabet 盧恩字母 2 th century A. D. Ogham alphabet 歐甘字母 4 th century A. D. Coptic alphabet 科普特字母 3 th century A. D. Gothic alphabet 哥特字母 3 th century A. D. Georgian alphabet 格鲁吉亚字母 4 -5 th century A. D. Armenian alphabet 亞美尼亞字母 405 A. D. Glagolitic alphabet 格拉哥里字母 862 A. D. Cyrillic alphabet 西里尔字母 10 th century A. D. Iberian 伊比利亞文字 6 th century B. C. South Arabian alphabet 南阿拉伯字母 9 th century B. C. Ge'ez 吉茲字母 5 -6 th century B. C. • • • Meroitic alphabet 麥羅埃文 3 th century B. C. Kana 假名 800 A. D. Hangul 諺文 1444 A. D. Phonetic symbols 注音符號 1913 A. D. Yi 彝文 became syllable characters after partial specification in 1980 A. D. 103
brāhmī（婆罗米文系字母） ISO轉寫 k kh g gh ṅ c ch j jh ñ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ t th d dh n ṉ 國際音 標 婆羅米 文 k kʰ ɡ ɡʱ ŋ c cʰ ɟ ɟʱ ɲ ʈ ʈʰ ɖ ɖʱ ɳ t t ʰ d d ʰ n n क ख ग घ ङ च छ ज झ ञ ट ठ ड ढ ण त थ द ध न ऩ 孟加拉 文 古木基 文 ক খ গ ঘ ঙ চ ছ জ ঝ ঞ ট ঠ ড ঢ ণ ত থ দ ধ ন ਕ ਖ ਗ ਘ ਙ ਚ ਛ ਜ ਝ ਞ ਟ ਠ ਡ ਢ ਣ ਤ ਥ ਦ ਧ ਨ 古吉拉 特文 ક ખ ગ ઘ ઙ ચ છ જ ઝ ઞ ટ ઠ ડ ઢ ણ ત થ દ ધ ન 奧里亞 文 କ ଖ ଗ ଘ ଙ ଚ ଛ ଜ ଝ ଞ ଟ ଠ ଡ ଢ ଣ ତ ଥ ଦ ଧ ନ ཀ ཁ ག ང ཅ ཆ ཇ ཉ ཊ ཋ ཌ ཎ ཏ ཐ ད ན క ఖ గ ఘ ఙ చ ఛ జ ఝ ఞ ట ఠ డ ఢ ణ త థ ద ధ న 天城文 藏文 泰盧固 文 卡納達 文 僧伽羅 文 ಕ ಖ ಗ ಘ ಙ ಚ ಛ ಜ ಝ ಞ ಟ ಠ ಡ ಢ ಣ ತ ಥ ದ ಧ ನ 馬拉雅 拉姆文 ക ഖ ഗ ഘ ങ ച ഛ ജ ഝ ഞ ട ഠ ഡ ഢ ണ ത ഥ ദ ധ ന 泰米爾 文 க ங ச ஜ ஞ ட ண த ந ன 高棉文 泰文 ก ข ค ฆ ง จ ฉ ช ฌ ญ ฏ ฐ ฑ ฒ ณ ต ถ ท ธ น 老挝文 ກ ຂ ຄ ງ ຈ ຊ ຍ ຕ ຖ ທ ນ
![元音 [6] 下表爲元音和它們的排列順序： दवन गर / devanāgarī （天成体 元音） 獨立形式 羅馬化 作為प的符号 kaṇṭhya ）](https://present5.com/presentation/bea667e39acf85e93c1ae178359cd722/image-105.jpg "元音 [6] 下表爲元音和它們的排列順序： दवन गर / devanāgarī （天成体 元音） 獨立形式 羅馬化 作為प的符号 kaṇṭhya ）")
元音 [6] 下表爲元音和它們的排列順序： दवन गर / devanāgarī （天成体 元音） 獨立形式 羅馬化 作為प的符号 kaṇṭhya ） 喉音 （ अ a प आ ā प tālavya ） 腭音 （ इ i प ई ī प oṣṭhya ） 唇音 （ उ u प ऊ ū प mūrdhanya ） 頭音 （ ऋ ṛ प ॠ ṝ प dantya ） 齒音 （ ऌ ḷ प ॡ ḹ प kaṇṭhatālavya ） 喉腭音 （ ए e प ऐ ai प kaṇṭhoṣṭhya ） 喉唇音 （ ओ o प औ au प 105
Tibetan 藏文字母表 106
Arabic Writing 107
上下文形式 獨立 尾部 中部 名字 首部 音值（IPA） 轉寫 ﺍ ﺍ ʾalif ʾ / ā 多種多樣，包括 /aː/ ﺏ ـﺐ ـﺒـ ﺑـ bāʾ b /b/, 也在某些借詞中讀 作 /p/ ﺕ ـﺖ ـﺘـ ﺗـ tāʾ t /t/ ﺙ ـﺚ ـﺜـ ﺛـ ṯāʾ ṯ /θ/ ﺝ ـﺞ ـﺠـ ﺟـ ǧīm ǧ（也寫為 j, g） [ɡ~dʒ~ʒ] ﺡ ـﺢ ـﺤـ ﺣـ ḥāʾ ḥ /ħ/ ﺥ ـﺦ ـﺨـ ﺧـ ḫāʾ ḫ（也寫為 kh, x） /x/ ﺩ ـﺪ ﺩ dāl d /d/ ﺫ ـﺬ ﺫ ḏāl ḏ（也寫為 dh, ð） /ð/ ﺭ ـﺮ ﺭ rāʾ r /r/ ﺯ ـﺰ ﺯ zāy z /z/ ﺱ ـﺲ ـﺴـ ﺳـ sīn s /s/ ﺵ ـﺶ ـﺸـ ﺷـ šīn š（也寫為 sh） /ʃ/ ﺹ ـﺺ ـﺼـ ﺻـ ṣād ṣ /sˁ/ ﺽ ـﺾ ـﻀـ ﺿـ ḍād ḍ /dˁ/ ﻁ ـﻂ ـﻄـ ﻃـ ṭāʾ ṭ /tˁ/ ﻅ ـﻆ ـﻈـ ﻇـ ẓāʾ ẓ [ðˁ~zˁ] ﻉ ـﻊ ـﻌـ ﻋـ ʿayn ʿ /ʕ/ ﻍ ـﻎ ـﻐـ ﻏـ ġayn ġ（也寫為 gh） /ɣ/（在很多借詞中讀作 /ɡ/） ﻑ ـﻒ ـﻔـ ﻓـ fāʾ f /f/, 也在一些借詞中讀 作 /v/ ﻕ ـﻖ ـﻘـ ﻗـ qāf q /q/ ﻙ ـﻚ ـﻜـ ﻛـ kāf k /k/ ﻝ ـﻞ ـﻠـ ﻟـ lām l /l/, （只在 Allah 中讀作 [lˁ]） ﻡ ـﻢ ـﻤـ ﻣـ mīm m /m/ ﻥ ـﻦ ـﻨـ ﻧـ nūn n /n/ ﻩ ـﻪ ـﻬـ ﻫـ hāʾ h /h/ ﻭ ـﻮ ﻭ wāw w / ū /w/ / /uː/, 有時在借詞 中讀作 /u/, /o/ 和 /oː/ ﻱ ـﻲ ـﻴـ ﻳـ yāʾ y / ī /j/ / /iː/, 有時在借詞中 讀作 /i/, /eː/ 和 /e/ 108
Hangeul (韩文字母) 109
Latin vs. Cyrillic 110
Cyrillic World 111
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