5 The Family of Pedagogical Dictionaries v 5

5. The Family of Pedagogical Dictionaries v 5. 1 Collegiate dictionaries for nativespeaker-like learners v 5. 2 Usage, collocation, … dictionary, and thesauri

v In addition to ALDs, there are some other general-purpose learners’ dictionaries. On the one hand, there are dictionaries for the beginners or intermediate level learners. These dictionaries have a relatively reduced size of coverage and the definitions and the grammatical and pragmatic information labels are much friendlier and easier to understand. Beginners’ dictionaries and intermediate dictionaries share roughly the same basic features of the ALDs but a major difference lies in their assumptions of the target learners’ linguistic competence and specific difficulties. On the other hand, there should be dictionaries for “more” advanced learners. Actually, the only dictionaries available to them are desk dictionaries or collegiate dictionaries in the USA.

v Besides general-purpose ones, there also pedagogical dictionaries to serve specific purposes in learning English, such as thesauri for writing, usage dictionaries for solving various problems in language use, synonym dictionaries for discriminating synonyms, and pronunciation dictionaries, collocation dictionaries, quotation dictionaries, and so on. Moreover, there also bilingual dictionaries, and monolingual dictionaries with Chinese translations, also called “bilingualized” dictionaries.

v In what follows we will briefly introduce some well-established collegiate dictionaries and desk dictionaries and, a few specificpurpose dictionaries, such as usage dictionaries, collocation dictionaries, and thesuauri, leaving bilingual and bilingualized dictionaries to later part.

5. 1 Collegiate dictionaries for native-speaker-like learners v While moving further in learning and using English, the advanced learners will one day find the learners’ dictionaries, even the “advanced” ones, not adequate to serve their needs. Then they are ready to use dictionaries made for the native speakers, such as the collegiate dictionaries. The collegiate dictionaries usually have a coverage of around 150 000 words, a great increase in taking in technical terms. The definitions are more straightforward and accurate, “throwing off the shackles” of defining vocabulary. Less commonly used senses of polysemous words are also present and defined. There are several major collegiate dictionaries today in the USA and about 2 million are sold each year. The collegiate dictionaries have formed quite a number of distinctive features.

v The first collegiate dictionary is Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (henceforth WCD in short) published by G. & C. Merriam (later Merriam -Webster) in 1898. But the dictionary that has defined “college dictionaries” as a “modern genre” is Random House’s American College Dictionary (ACD) in 1947. It is a dictionary that distinguished itself from its predecessors in “drawing upon the best available scholarship and linguistic studies of its time, such as that of Irving Lorge and Edward Thordike in A Semantic Count of English Words (1938), and applied them in its dictionary…. It [also] included a large number of [scientific and] technical terms and used a team of [355] experts to check its definitions in these fields. ” (Landau 2001: 91). The coverage of ACD is 132 000 entries.

v In 1953, Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language, College Edition (WNW) appeared. It is characterized by its simplified definitions of technical terms, which are more accessible to laypeople. Its second college edition (1970) is characterized by its identification of Americanisms. The latest edition is Webster’s New World College Dictionary (4 th edition 1999).

v In 1969, The American Heritage College Dictionary was published in reaction to the presumed errors of NID 3. It aimed at rescuing the English language and the standards of traditional lexicography. It has introduced “a usage panel of putative ‘good writers’ whose judgments about disputed usages are supposed to provide guidance for the rest of the benighted English-speaking world. It was hoped that this would redress the mischief done by NID 3’s permissiveness, as detected by Mr. Parton. ” (Landau 2001: 93 -94). The panel consists mainly of well-known writers, critics, and academics. The latest edition is the third edition (1997).

v The latest edition of Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary is Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (11 th edition 2003). It has always been the primary rivalry of other collegiate dictionaries. “All of the other college dictionaries have made distinctive contributions, often in a deliberate effort to set themselves apart from their competitors and from Merriam-Webster in particular. In so doing, they have inevitably forced their competitors, including Merriam. Webster, to take note of their innovations and to adapt their own presentations accordingly. ” (Landau 2001: 94).

v The British counterparts of college dictionaries are desk dictionaries. The two major lines of desk dictionaries in Britain are the Chambers (from 1901) and the Concise Oxford Dictionary (from 1911). For a long time, the British dictionaries had been sticking to the practice of providing only linguistic information, excluding encyclopedic information. And their coverage of scientific and technical terms is very little. In recent decades, the British desk dictionaries come to resemble the American college dictionaries in more and more respects. In addition to the above two desk dictionaries, there are Collins English Dictionary (1979) and the New Oxford Dictionary of English (NODE 1998).

5. 2 Usage, collocation, … dictionary, and thesauri v Usage dictionary The most well-know pedagogical usage dictionary in China is Practical English Usage (Swan 1980). It was first partly translated into Chinese and published in English Learning, a popular ELT periodical in China. Later, its Chinese version was published. Its second edition appeared in 1995 and the Chinese version was not available until 2000. Its third edition was published in 2005 and its Chinese version is not available yet.

v By usage, it means “the study of good, correct, or standard uses of language, as distinguished from bad, incorrect, and nonstandard uses …[and] the study of any limitations on use, whether geographic, social, or temporal. ” (Landau 2001: 217). But the underlying question is who has the final say in deciding which usage is standard and by what criteria it is judged as standard. Even The American Heritage Dictionary (AHD, fourth edition 2000) has made some adaptations to its reliance on the usage panel.

v v “In AHD 4, Geoffrey Nunberg does not assert that the panel’s task is to determine what correct usage is; the panel is not to be thought of as an Academy, he says. The panel’s collective judgment ‘merely reflects the predominant practices of Standard English, ’ which he defines as ‘the variety that happens to have been adopted by the educated middle classes, ’ but there is no reason to assume that the panel, an elite group of writers, scholars, and critics, share the predominant practices of standard English, or know what they are. ” (Landau 2001: 248). The other major usage dictionaries are:

v Collins COBUILD English Usage with CDROM (1992; 2004 (2 nd)) v Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage (1994) v The Cambridge Guide to English Usage Pam Peters (2004)

v The COBUILD is a corpus-based dictionary. It is targeted for the intermediate and advanced students. Its thousands of examples are all extracted from the Bank of English corpus. It has fully explicated over 2 000 usages. The new edition has made improvement on the coverage of American English and the numerous warning notes highlighting particular problems students have in using English in speech and writing.

v The Merriam-Webster's is mainly focused on the usage of American English. It has 2 300 entries, presenting the history, analysis, and recommendations about noted usage controversies, which are illustrated with more than 20 000 quotations from prominent writers.

v The Cambridge Guide is featured in its having a basis on large international corpora and its clear differentiation between US, UK, Canadian and Australian usages.

Collocation dictionary v Collocation dictionary The importance of collocation in learning a foreign language was recognized by Palmer, Hornby and other compilers of the early learners’ dictionaries (Palmer 1933). A major subject of corpus linguistic researches is about collocation and its application to dictionary making (Sinclair 2004 [1970]). In recent years, collocation studies revived in dictionary making and in ELT researches, especially with the help of corpus linguistics (Cowie 1981; Nesselhauf 2005). The major collocation dictionaries are:

v v v The BBI Dictionary of English Word Combinations (1997). Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. 2 Vols. . (1975) (1983) Oxford Collocations dictionary for students of English. (2002) LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations (1997). 《英语搭配大辞典》（The Kenkyusha Dictionary of English Collocations）胜俣铨吉郎（主编）1939（第一版）； 1958 （增补版）； 1995（第三版）（主编（日）市川繁治郎） 2006（中文版）（王克非主审）

v Among these five collocation dictionaries, the last three are available presently at the book market in China. The last one is especially useful to those non-native speakers to write in English.

v Thesauri Thesaurus is defined as “a type of reference work which presents the vocabulary of a language, language variety or subject discipline by systematically tracing synonym networks between words within semantic domains…. In its modern sense, the term is associated with Peter Roget’s thematically arranged Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (1852)…. It merely listed and classified (rather than defined and discriminated) words of similar sense” (Hartmann & James 1998). Roget’s Thesaurus has enjoyed an “unbroken, 150 -year-long popularity” (Hüllen 2004: 2).

v v The major difference between a thesaurus and an ordinary dictionary is explicitly spelled out in the preface of the Thesaurus by Roget himself ((Hüllen 2004: 327): The purpose of an ordinary dictionary, is simply to explain the meaning of words; and the problem of which it professes to furnish the solution may be stated thus: -- The word being given, to find its signification, or the idea it is intended to convey. The object aimed at in the present undertaking [i. e. a thesaurus] is exactly the converse of this; namely, -- The idea being given to find the word, or words, by which that idea may be most fitly and aptly expressed. (P. v).

v Thesauri are of various sizes and used mainly by native speakers in writing and translating. The only one of a pedagogical nature is Longman Language Activator (LLA 1993). It is claimed to be “the world’s first production dictionary”(on its cover).

v LLA has a two-level retrieval system. The first level is the 1 052 key concept words which are arranged alphabetically as the main framework, around which a set of near synonyms or related words or phrases are discriminated and illustrated with typical examples. All of the near synonyms or related words or phrases are also alphabetically arranged as the second level of retrieval. These second level entries are “bare” headwords, providing no more information but a reference to the key concept word where it is treated with together with other related ones. The definitions and discriminations are written within a controlled vocabulary of 2 000 commonly used words and the typical example sentences are useful for imitation, which might even guarantee the user to “fitly and aptly” use a word or phrase unknown previously. This is really a help to the learners in writing in English.

6. Pedagogical Lexicographical Studies 6. 1 Linguistic foundations of pedagogical lexicography 6. 2 Applied linguistic studies 6. 3 Users’ perspective 6. 4 Technological foundations of lexicography 6. 5 Further advancement of lexicography itself

Hüllen (1999: 5) has identified three main sources that lexicography exploits: v (i) linguistics in all those branches that determine what information about words is worth mentioning in a dictionary; v (ii) research on the needs of dictionary users, determining the aims of dictionaries as a basis for ascertaining what they should be like in order to meet these needs; v (iii) the history of lexicographical practice and its accompanying theory, which show the abundance of knowledge and of experience that has been collected in this field over the centuries or millennia.

As far as pedagogical lexicography is concerned, there are two other sources that are worth mentioning: v (iv) applied linguistics that determines how to sort and present the linguistic information so as to facilitate the activities of language teaching and learning; v (v) translation studies, having gained insights into the comparison between the lexicons of the target and source language, which are indispensable for the compilation of bilingual and bilingualized dictionaries.

6. 1 Linguistic foundations of pedagogical lexicography v Let us first see what information is contained in a dictionary. A typical dictionary, i. e. , a general-purpose monolingual one, normally includes spelling, pronunciation, stress, hyphenation, part of speech categorization, morphological information, etymology, lexical meaning, valency patterns, pragmatic information or usage information, collocations, taxonomy, expert and common-sense knowledge and extra -linguistic or encyclopedic information. To collect, analyze and present such information in a dictionary surely relies heavily on linguistics. The lexicographers of learners’ dictionaries, however, will have to take applied linguistics into special consideration as well.

v Nowadays, it is generally accepted that the lexicographers’ work is “above all a descriptive activity, recording existing usage rather than laying down prescriptive or normative rules about how words should be used or which words are to be avoided” (Hartmann 1983: 5). What a learners’ dictionary aims at describing is the so-called “standard language”, i. e. “standard English” in this case.

v Standard English is “the English that with respect to spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary is substantially uniform though not devoid of regional differences, that is well established by usage in the formal and informal speech and writing of the educated, and that is widely recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken and understood” (MWCD 11). Social linguistics can help us better appreciate the standardness of the English language, especially when English has so many different varieties, being used by people of great differences in ethnic backgrounds.

v Linguistic studies have provided not only the content of what a dictionary is to describe but also some insights and principles for guiding the lexicographical practices. As least some design questions needs linguistics to provide, or partially provide solutions. For instance, should a dictionary be descriptive or prescriptive? Is it applicable to a learners’ dictionary? How should the meaning of a word be described so as to capture both the synchronic and diachronic semantic change?

v How could the linguistic and encyclopedic information of a word meaning be differentiated and presented in an entry? What are the relationships between the phonological, syntactical, semantic and pragmatic information of a word? What are their different functions and statuses in an entry? How could they be integrated so that a holistic lexicographic portrait could be sketched for each word? …

v The solution of these questions chiefly comes from relevant linguistic investigations. It is not deniable that there is still a large gap between theoretical linguistic researches and the practical dictionary making. Much effort, therefore, needs to be made by the linguistic theoreticians, the English teachers and the lexicographic practitioners to bridge such a gap. Hopefully, applied linguistic studies are likely to be one of the enterprises to serve as such a bridge.

6. 2 Applied linguistic studies v As indicated in section 3, the birth of English pedagogical dictionaries were motivated and catalyzed by ELT, especially ESL and EFL teaching. English pedagogical grammar, vocabulary control movement, and collocation studies have formed three core pillars for pedagogical dictionary making and researches.

v The particular activities and tasks of teaching and learning English as a second or foreign language have called for an adaptation in the application of the achievements of linguistic researeches. For instance, the revision and improvement of an English pedagogical grammar should take into consideration of both the development of theoretical grammar researches into the English language and the progress of ELT itself as well. Thus, the design of grammatical information labels for making a pedagogical dictionary should necessarily make some timely adjustments and/or innovations according to the progress in English pedagogical grammar studies and, if possible, theoretical grammar studies as well.

v The defining vocabulary, as an important result of vocabulary control movement and a design feature of pedagogical dictionary, has been investigated in more depth and accuracy. Take English ALDs as an example, the defining vocabulary has been divided into three bands: 2 000 (in LDOCE, CIDE/CALD), 2 500 (in COBUILD, MEDAL), and 3 000 (in OALD). And in LLA, 1 052 basic words have been identified to represent the corresponding 1 052 core concepts, which are fundamental and indispensable for human communication.

v v As to collocation, its significance to and the difficulties it has posed in L 2 learning are more fully recognized and appreciated. As a result, it has been progressively dealt with in English ALDs and many a collocation dictionary has been compiled or up-dated in recent decades. We now turn to an important approach to dictionary researches – users’ perspective, analogous to the student-centered approach in ELT.

6. 3 Users’ perspective v User’s perspective is just one among the many different perspectives from which dictionary researches could be conducted, such as compiler’s perspective, critical perspective, historical perspective, regional perspective, linguistic perspective, typological perspective, structural perspective, and interdisciplinary perspective (Hartmann 2003).

v As early as in 1747, Samuel Johnson recognized that “the value of a work must be estimated by its use: it is not enough that a dictionary delights the critic, unless at the same time it instructs the learners…” (Johnson 2003 [1747]: 30). In 1960, Clarence Barnhart conducted a questionnaire survey among American college teachers of English to see how they rank the linguistic information categories in the dictionaries they possess. He also points out that “it is the function of a popular dictionary to answer the questions that the user of the dictionary asks, and dictionaries on the commercial market will be successful in proportion to the extent to which they answer these questions of the buyer” (Barnhart 2003 [1962]: 285).

v And a decade later, Randolph Quirk carried out a more elaborate and widespread survey of dictionary use in the UK, this time among the students themselves rather than the teachers (Quirk 1973). Both surveys are about the native speakers of English and their use of dictionaries but the research methods and results are applicable to pedagogical dictionaries for ESL/EFL learners.

v The significance of dictionary users for a dictionary project is widely recognized. As Stein indicates, “dictionaries are obviously written for their users. We therefore need much more research on the dictionary user, his needs, his expectation, and his prejudices. (1984: 4)”. Dictionary has actually provided a platform on which the compiler, user, teacher, and researcher can interact (Hartmann 2001: 24 -25):

v The dictionary compiler collects data and presents them in the form of information categories which are related to specific formats or types of reference works, while the dictionary user employs his or her reference skills to meet his or her reference needs in the context of specific tasks or activities to consult specific reference works. The compiler and the user thus approach the dictionary form two different ends, as it were (“top down” for the compiler and “bottom up” for the user). Where they both meet is via the text of the dictionary, which has to be sufficiently transparent (or “user-friendly”, as we now say) to communicate what the compiler has put in and what the user wants to get out.

v User’s perspective is of special significance to pedagogical dictionaries, for the teachers and students are a special group of users with special needs. More in-depth investigations need to be carried out on the needs of the particular groups of learners, i. e. the beginners, the intermediate learners, and the advanced learners, and their specific needs in different teaching tasks and activities, i. e. in speaking, listening, reading, writing, and translating. More researches are also needed for looking into the reference skills of the learners in different learning activities, and the training programs to be developed for improving both the students’ and the teachers’ referential skills. Moreover, innovations need to be made in designing new modes of entry structures so that the dictionary could be more user-friendly.

v The important papers on dictionary user studies are Hartmann (1989), Hulstijn and Atkins (1998) and Tono (2001).

6. 4 Technological foundations of lexicography v The development of computer sciences, information technology, language technology and corpus linguistics has brought about a revolution in dictionary making. The changes are mainly manifested in language data collection, storage, and analysis, in the form of dictionary information presentation, such as traditional paper form, on a computer, or on a CD-ROM or on Internet, and in the manner of dictionary information retrieval.

v Computerized corpora, especially the large-scale ones, such as BNC (100 million words) and the Bank of English (650 million words in 2007), have made it possible for linguists and lexicographers to extract more categories of linguistic information more quickly and more accurately. For instance, there is much progress in the treatment of collocation information in English ALDs (Mc. Enery, T. , R. Xiao & Y. Tono 2006: 208 -226).

v Electronic dictionaries are becoming more and more popular nowadays, especially among high school and college students. The e-dictionaries can provide some categories of linguistic information unimaginable for traditional paper dictionary makers. For instance, authentic pronunciation of each headword is provided with both the American and the British accents. And the learner can even record his or her own pronunciation and make a comparison with the standard ones. A double-click on a word can directly bring you to the entry of that word.

v Since there is no space limit to an e-dictionary, it is possible for more than one dictionary to be cyberlinked on one window interface and extra linguistic data can be integrated into it. For instance, the CD -ROM of LDOCE 4 has included all the information of the paper version and the LLA is integrated. Moreover, there are two extra data banks, i. e. a phrase bank providing collocations, and an examples corpus having an extra million example sentences. More extra functions are steadily developed and put into the e-dictionaries.

6. 5 Further advancement of lexicography itself v Lexicography has gradually established itself as an independent academic discipline. It has developed some core branches, such as metalexicography, historical lexicography, typological lexicography, monolingual lexicography, bilingual lexicography, computational lexicography or corpus lexicography, and pedagogical lexicography. These core branches have not only modernized and rejuvenated lexicography but have turned it into an academic discipline of a multidisciplinary nature.

v Lexicography is also well-grounded both in principle and in practice. Theoretically, it is anchored on linguistic and applied linguistic studies, and technologically, it relies more and more on computer sciences and language technology. Dictionary making today requires not only the art and craft but the science and technology. Lexicography is thus an integration of multiple disciplines, embracing both the traditional ones and the newly emerged ones.

v As far as pedagogical lexicography is concerned, its progress is closely related externally to the development and advancement of linguistic studies, foreign language teaching and research, and language technology, and internally to other relevant theoretical lexicographic studies, dictionary compilation technologies, and the investigations into the needs of students and teachers. Pedagogical dictionary making today is no longer an accomplishment of an individual’s endeavor but a product of collective efforts, among which are foreign language teachers, professional lexicographers, linguistic scholars, language engineers and researchers, and the publishers.

v Lexicography has also established its methodologies in lexicographical studies. Since different research activities are involved in lexicographical studies, different methods or methodologies are needed. Surveys could be used, for instance, to collect information about the attitudes of the target users towards different types of dictionaries and their (macrostructure and microstructure) design features. A case study could be used for studying a particular dictionary, i. e. , an in-depth comprehensive investigation into some or all aspects of one single dictionary, or on an individual dictionary user, i. e. his or her use of dictionaries in different learning or teaching activities.

v Empirical experiments could be carried out to study the effectiveness of the different design features on different learning activities or on users of different language proficiency levels. Textual research methods and exegetic interpretive methods are needed when ancient classic dictionaries are involved; whereas contrastive and comparison methods are indispensable for studying most of the bilingual or bilingualized dictionaries or their compilation.

7. English pedagogical lexicography in China v 7. 1 Bilingual learners’ dictionaries v 7. 2 Monolingual learners’ dictionaries and their bilingualized versions v 7. 3 (Pedagogical) lexicographical studies in China

v The development of pedagogical dictionary making and research in China in the past century is unsteady diachronically and relatively lagged behind synchronically in comparison with the situation in the western countries. Here we will mainly concentrate on the situation in China in the past three decades.

7. 1 Bilingual learners’ dictionaries v According to some lexicographical survey and investigation (曹先擢、陈秉才1992; 雍和明等 2007), there are only 7 bilingual (English-Chinese) learner’s dictionaries compiled before 1949 and 5 from 1950 to 1979 in China in the 20 th century. Among these dictionaries, there are two distinguished themselves: English Usage Dictionary (《英语惯用法词典》) （葛传槼 1942） and The Little English-Chinese Dictionary (《英汉 小词典》) (陈羽纶、党凤德等1977).

v v The former is of abundant entries, detailed usage notes and illustrative example sentences. It is an authoritative middle-sized special English-Chinese learner’s dictionaries and it has solved many problems typical to Chinese learners of English usages. The latter was ranked as the top one among those English. Chinese learner’s dictionaries compiled and published in mainland China in the period from 1949 to 1979. These English-Chinese learner’s dictionaries were all small- to middle-scaled ones whose information and functions were not so rich and they were chiefly made for high school students or beginners to learn English.

v From 1980 to 1988, there are 53 English-Chinese learners’ dictionaries published, a noticeable increase. At this time, the Chinese compilers began to pay more attention to independence in compilation and learning from learner’s dictionaries compiled abroad. The dictionaries compiled in this period are chiefly an integrative product of independent development and benefiting from the west experiences.

v In the 1990 s, there are 261 English-Chinese learners’ dictionaries published (Yang Wenxiu, 2003). This is a dramatic increase both in quantity and in type. The quantity and categories of English -Chinese learner’s dictionaries increased rapidly. In addition to traditional learner’s dictionaries, there come special dictionaries, dictionaries for test preparation and dictionaries for particular course-books.

v In this period, English-Chinese dictionaries for learners have surpassed all the rest types in quantity. Meanwhile, the independently designed dictionaries have also surpassed those based on translation, which, in a sense, means a big move towards independence and an apparent shift to the localization in compiling dictionaries to meet the particular needs of Chinese students.

v Since 1977 when China opened its door to the outside world, English language teaching has created a huge market for English learners’ dictionaries. Pedagogical dictionary making, however, was lagged behind. Dictionary making, like any other academic research programs, takes time. Dictionary projects, as is widely known, are likely to take more time than what is assumed or planned. There are some pedagogical English-Chinese dictionaries compiled but these dictionaries are mostly “hurriedlywritten” ones. These dictionaries usually could not survive more than one or two editions.

v The compilation of a good dictionary not only takes time but needs experienced lexicographers being guided by lexicographical theories. These things have long been inadequate, for the frequent warfare in the first half of the 20 th century and the frequent political movements and ideological struggles in the next thirty years paralyzed the accumulation of experience and hindered the development of pedagogical lexicographic theories.

v Fortunately, there are some general purpose English-Chinese dictionaries to compensate. For instance, the New English-Chinese Dictionary (Ge Chuangui et al 1975), among others, is widely used to make do as a learners’ dictionary. And other larger English-Chinese dictionaries, such as The English-Chinese Dictionary (Lu Gusun, second edition 2007), also “bears the characteristics of learners’ dictionaries (兼顾学习 型词典特征) ” (on its back cover).

7. 2 Monolingual learners’ dictionaries and their bilingualized versions v Monolingual learners’ dictionary, as indicated in section 3 and 4, has been witnessing a booming in recent decades. It has a relatively long history of circulation in China. It had been photocopied and circulated in Mainland China in a limited range before China joined in the international copyright organizations. The bilingualized version of OALD 2, OALD 3 could also be found in circulation though in a very limited range.

v v The wide circulation of monolingual learners’ dictionary began when the Chinese publishing houses cooperated with the foreign publishing houses in the late 1980 s. The different monolingual learners’ dictionaries, such as OALD, LDODE and COBUILD, and their bilingualized versions mushroomed in China. Presently, almost all the latest English versions and their bilingualized Chinese versions of the “big six” English ALDs are available in the dictionary market in China. Moreover, quite some of the American collegiate dictionaries and British desk dictionaries also have their bilingualized Chinese versions published in China.

v In the 20 th century, almost all the advance learners’ dictionaries were published in Britain. There has been a prevalence of British English over American English, at least in pedagogical dictionary publishing. In the new century, however, there is a trend of publishing the American version of the ALDs. For instance, CIDE (1995) has Cambridge Dictionary of American English (CDAE) (Landau 2000), LDOCE (1978) has Longman Advanced American Dictionary (LAAD) (), MEDAL (2002) has the Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners of American English (MEDALAE) (2002), and COBUILD has Collins Cobuild Advanced Dictionary of American English (COBUILD-ADAE) (2007).

v v There is still no comparable advanced learner’s English dictionary published by American publishing houses. Hopefully, we could expect one by Merriam-Webster in the coming year, for it has promised to produce one (see its website). It is a pity that few researches have been made on these bilingualized dictionaries in China, though there are some studies on the monolingual ones.

7. 3 (Pedagogical) lexicographical studies in China v Generally speaking, lexicographical studies of learner’s dictionaries in China are more oriented to serving practical needs rather than putting forward theories. The major subject matters for pedagogical lexicographical research in China are as follows:

v v the historical study of learner’s dictionaries, such as the relationship between learner’s dictionary making and vocabulary teaching and learning (张利伟 1996), inheritance and innovations (陆谷孙 1998), the design features of monolingual learner’s dictionary and bilingual learner’s dictionary (田兵 2007; 陈国华、田兵 2008), etc. ; some case studies of a certain dictionary (and/or its different editions) or a dictionary family, such as the case study on LDOCE and the linguistic principles behind (田兵 1999);

v v some essential components of learner’ s dictionary, such as structure and methods of sense definition (章宜华1999), sense differentiation and description (田兵 2004), pragmatic information presentation (杨文秀2005), illustrative examples (Xu 2005), etc. ; different approaches to learner’s dictionaries, such as cognitive (赵彦春 2003), communicative (雍和明2003), critical (于海江 2004), comparative (魏向清 2005), psycholinguistic (赵翠莲 2006) etc. ;

8. Prospects v As indicated in the first few years of the third Millennium, lexicography is surely to develop and advance with accumulating momentum. The momentum will be gained and sustained internally, externally, and internationally. The internal momentum chiefly comes from its historical inheritance and its present differentiation into sub-disciplines. The significance of the classic dictionaries will further be recognized and more treasures will surely be dug up from them. Moreover, the lexicographical cultures of different civilizations will also be more systematically studied, compared and better appreciated from different perspectives. The lexicography will keep differentiating into finer subdisciplines and the new branches will surely rejuvenate dictionary making, for it has steadily gained external momentum as well.

v The external momentum is mainly obtained from two different aspects – academics and technology. The relevant linguistic studies in the new century are definitely to progress continuously, which will further widen the horizons of lexicographical studies and deepen and sophisticate the analysis of the lexicon as a whole and the lexical items in individual of different particular languages. The influence of technological development on dictionary making is all-embracing and profound. Dictionary computerization has greatly relieved the laborious work of traditional lexicographers and quickened the speed of revision and updating of existent dictionaries. Electronic dictionary, a new star of the dictionary family, has changed not only the way of dictionary making, but the media of dictionary existence and the habits of dictionary use. Language technology, among other technologies related to linguistic data analysis and the making and design of different types of dictionaries, has greatly enriched the categories of linguistic information and increased the accuracy of their information description in each entry.

v The international momentum comes from the English language, i. e. its developing into a global language. In such a process of globalization in recent decades, the demand of teaching English as a second or foreign language has stimulated the compilation of pedagogical English dictionaries and brought forth the flushing of pedagogical lexicographical studies. To describe the national varieties of the English language and to meet the particular needs of learners from different ethnic backgrounds has promoted cooperative international dictionary projects. The emergence and booming of bilingual and bilingualized dictionaries for English learners in China, in a sense, could also be seen as a result of the globalization of the English language.

v v The momentums discussed above will guarantee a sustained development of lexicography. But in what directions will it develop? The following trends are about lexicography, which are also applicable to the core branches of lexicography, pedagogical lexicography included. Firstly, lexicography will form a more intimate relationship with linguistic studies. Such an intimate relationship with linguistics and with other theoretical investigations will continue to keep lexicography as a multidisciplinary enterprise and will ground lexicography on a more solid theoretical foundation.

v v Secondly, computer, internet, and other products of hightech will further change the way of dictionary making, the form of dictionary existence, and the way we live with dictionaries in different forms. Thirdly, historical and (cross-) cultural lexicographical studies will receive more attention, which will set lexicographical studies against a much broader background.

v Fourthly, dictionary making, which could be exclusively fulfilled by individual persons in the past, can only be, under most cases, a product of team work, consisting of linguists, computer engineers, lexicographers, the publisher, and people with sufficient knowledge about some specialized fields, such as language teachers for making pedagogical dictionaries.

v Fifthly, dictionary making is developing in two opposite directions. On the one hand, dictionaries are becoming more and more specialized, i. e. to adequately meet the needs of more particular target users, or devoted to the vocabulary of a more specific linguistic category. On the other hand, dictionaries are becoming more comprehensive. In other words, these dictionaries are more comprehensive so as to contain information as much as possible to meet every potential user’s needs. The new media and technology has made this unimaginable dream come true in the foreseeable future.

v Last but not least, dictionaries are becoming more idiosyncratic and interactive to meet the particular needs of each individual user.

9. Further readings v v v “英语学习词典的起源、发展和影响”（张利伟 1996）《外 语教学与研究》1996 第 3期，57 -60页。 “ 20世纪英语高阶学习词典研究”（田 兵　2007）《外语教 学与研究》2007第 1期 “下一代英语学习词典的设计特征”（陈国华、田兵）《外语 教学与研究》2008第 3期 《英语词典初探》（李荫华 1985）北京：商务印书馆 《词典论》（黄建华1987第一版； 2001第二版）上海：上 海辞书出版社 《双语词典学导论》（黄建华、陈楚祥 1997第 1版； 2001 修 订本）北京：商务印书馆

v v v “Dictionaries foreign learners”, in Dictionaries: the Art and Craft of Lexicography (Landau: 2001 second edition). P 74 -77 English Dictionaries for Foreign Learners: A History, (Cowie 1999), Oxford: Oxford University Press. Looking Up: An Account of the COBUILD Project in Lexical Computing, (Sinclair 1987) (ed. ), London: Collins. The Perfect Learners’ Dictionary (? ), (Herbst & Popp 1999), Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. Teaching and Researching Lexicography, (Hartmann 2001), Longman: Pearson Education. Lexicography: Critical Concepts, (Hartmann 2003) (ed. ) Vol. I, II, & III. London: Routledge.

9. Bibliography v A: Dictionaries and Wordlist(omitted) v B: References: (omitted)

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