3 principles of scientific grammar for distribution of

3 principles of scientific grammar for distribution of words into classes: 1) grammatical meaning; 2) form; 3) function.

Verb (Grammatical Meaning) In the most generalized way verbs express action. In a more detailed way verbs are subdivided into 3 groups: 1) action proper (to speak, to run) 2) state (to fear, to like) 3) process (to heat, to boil, to melt, to fade)

Verb (grammatical meaning) Transitive vs. intransitive Cf. He reads a lot. He reads a book. A transitive verb is followed by a direct object (non-prepositional object) ! Only transitive verbs are used in Passive Voice in the majority of Indo-European languages. But in English possibilities are wider.

Verb (grammatical meaning) Terminative vs. nonterminative/ durative-nondurative (конечного действия-продолжительного действия) Terminative verbs (предельные) imply a limit beyond which the action can not continue or we may such actions have a final aim in view (to break, to throw, to jump, to fall, to close, etc. ) Nonterminative verbs do not imply any limit of the action (to carry, to sleep, to live, to know, to have, to belong, to possess) Verbs of double nature (depending on the context) reveal either terminative or nonterminative meaning (to feel, to write, to remember).

Verb (formal characteristics) Word-changing 1) synthetically - with the help of inflexions (E. g. walks, walked) - with the help of inner-inflexion (E. g. writewrote) 2) analytical way With the help of auxiliary verbs (E. g. is written, has done)

Verb (formal characteristics) Word-building 1) Suffixation (real-realize) 2) Analytical ways (E. g. to look through, to look after, etc. ) – phrasal verbs

Verb (Function and Combinatoric Abilities) Finite form – a predicate of the sentence Non-finite form – practically any part of the sentence (subject, attribute, object, etc. )

Verb Valency Verbocentric theory what whom who send when where

Verb (Valency) Verbs can combine with: nouns pronouns adverbs numerals link-verbs adjectives

Classification of Verbs 1) Semantic point of view (verbs of speech, motion, sense, volition, etc. ) 2) Grammatical point of view (notional vs. functional) Notional verbs have a lexical meaning and can perform the function of the predicate even taken alone. Functional verbs (link-verbs, modal verbs and auxiliary verbs) either completely devoid of their lexical meaning or they can’t express the predicate of the sentence taken alone.

Modal verbs E. g. He may come. - modal verbs are used to express various kinds of interralations between the action and its doer (possible for doer, probable, advisable for doer)

Link Verbs Link verbs make part of the compound nominal predicate and are used to describe a certain state or quality of the subject of the sentence. 1) Verbs of being, remaining (static) сохранения состояния: to be, remain, feel, keep, continue, stand, etc. E. g. He felt tired 2) Verbs of becoming (dynamism) – смены состояния: to grow, get, to turn, to become, etc. E. g. He grew old

Auxiliary Verbs Auxiliary verbs have no lexical meaning of their own and serve to build the analytical forms of the verb (they bear the information about tense, aspect, mood, voice, person, and number while the lexical meaning is expressed by the following non-finite form of the verb) E. g. The letter will have been written by the morning.

Cf. E. g. He is married and has two sons (notional) E. g. 2. Who has done it? (auxiliary) E. g. 3. I had to wait long (modal)

Grammatical Categories person number Verb categories voice tense mood aspect

Tense Ontological time vs. tense (speaker’s perception and presentation) past future x Time – linear axis. On this axis there is chosen (by the speaker) a certain moment of speech and every action is characterized by its relation to the moment of speech.

Aspect - manner of action In Russian only perfective/ imperfective In English + continuous Present/ Future/ Past Simple (indefinite) – no manner of action

Mood - grammatical category used to express semantic meaning of modality. Cf. Modal verbs. Modality expresses evaluation of the utterance (real, unreal, possible, desirable, etc. ) Objective vs. subjective modality

Mood (traditional viewpoint) Subjunctive Mood (unreal situation in the present or future, unreal or improbable situation in the past) Indicative Mood (the speaker represents the action as a real fact) Mood Imperative Mood (command, inducement obligation, prohibition, advise or request)

Indicative Mood The speaker represents the action as a real fact. ! We deal with the grammatical meaning of the language form, but not with the ultimate truth of the statement. The grammatical meaning of the indicative mood is such that it can represent any false or unreal actions as a form of reality. ? Future The action is treated as an actual point of the speaker’s program.

Imperative Mood Command or inducement (побуждение к действию) ! In the negative form even the verb to be uses the auxiliary form don’t E. g. Don’t be stupid! Analytical construction with let helps to include the speaker into the number of addresses. E. g. Let us go there. Or address the action to the speaker alone E. g. Let me come. Or address the action to the 3 rd person E. g. Let him do it.

Subjunctive Mood Unreality of action. Old English singular plural Present bind-en Past bound-en Nowadays – homonymy with indicative mood

Subjunctive Mood Present Tense I be (work) He, she, it be (work) We be (work) You be (work) They be (work) Past Tense were were

Subjunctive Mood (Passive Voice) Present Tense I be sent He, she, it be sent We be sent You be sent They be sent Past Tense were sent were sent

Present Subjunctive (Use) 1) In subordinate clauses after main clauses like it is necessary, it is important, it is desirable, etc. E. g. It is desirable that he be there at five o’clock. Желательно, чтобы он был здесь в пять часов. E. g. 2. It was necessary that they take measures immediately. Было необходимо, чтобы они приняли меры немедленно.

2) In subordinate clauses depending on verbs (of the main clause) like order, command, suggest, propose, decide, agree, etc. E. g. He ordered that the goods be sent immediately Он приказал, чтобы товары были отправлены немедленно E. g. 2. He suggested that the question be discussed at the next meeting Он предложил обсудить вопрос на следующем заседании.

3) In clauses of purpose after conjunction “lest” (чтобы) E. g. They covered the goods with the canvas lest they be damaged by rain Они покрыли товары брезентом, чтобы они не были повреждены дождем.

! Present Subjunctive is used in America. In Britain combinations with “should/would/might/could” are used instead. These analytical forms were introduced in the 1617 th centuries in order to overcome the homonymy between indicative and subjunctive mood. The synthetic form is preferable in American English because it was taken to America by the first English colonists (they arrived before synthetic forms were developed in Britain).

Analytical Forms of Subjunctive Should/would/could/might + Infinitive (Present Subjunctive) Should/would/could/might + Perfect Infinitive (Past Subjunctive) E. g. It is important that he should return tomorrow Важно, чтобы он вернулся завтра. Cf. It is important that he return tomorrow (AE) E. g. 2. It is desirable that the agreement should be signed before May Желательно, чтобы соглашение было подписано до мая. Cf. It is desirable that the agreement be signed before May (AE)

Wish (if only)

Conditionals

Voice describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants. When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the target or undergoer of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. To be + V 3

Passive Forms

Types of Passive 1) Direct passive E. g. The mother helped the boy. The boy was helped. 2) Indirect Passive E. g. I asked him a question. He was asked a question 3) Prepositional Passive The boys laughed at him. He was laughed at by the boys.

The frequency of occurrence of the passive voice in English is from 3 to 4 times higher than in Russian. Reasons: 1) It is a convenient device not to mention the doer of the action. In Russian indefinite personal sentences are used in this case. E. g. Мне сказали. Полагают. 2) It is a convenient device to underline the doer of an action by representing it as a rheme. E. g. The wind crashed the window. The window was crashed by the wind (emphasize).