1 PSY 6450 Psychology of Work Unit 1

1 PSY 6450 Psychology of Work Unit 1 Schedule: Wednesday, 9/06 and Monday, 9/11: Lecture Wednesday, 9/13: Exam

2 PSY 6450 Unit 1 • Some facts and a little history of I/O • Aamodt • Certification and licensing of behavior analysts • Dickinson paper • Differences between I/O psychology and OBM • Bucklin et al. (2000) • Written essential material into SOs • History of OBM • Dickinson (2000) • 20 th anniversary issue of JOBM

3 SO 1: I/O vs. Business Fields • I/O focuses on factors that affect the people; business focuses on factors that affect running a business such as marketing channels, transportation networks, cost accounting • Business courses: accounting, finance, marketing, business law, corporate policy, information systems • Psychology courses: training and development, selection and placement, systems analysis, experimental methodology (permitting evaluation of interventions) *However, there is clearly overlap: Psychology of work vs. organizational behavior and management; systems analysis vs. business process management and supply chain management, for example. (% in Tble 1. 1 very interesting: MBA, no courses in research methdology, employee selection, very few training and performance appraisal – really important when you think of managers in most organizations that many/most of you will be working with)

4 Four basic areas of I/O psychology* (NFE) • Personnel Selection and Placement • Main area of emphasis for I/O • Not emphasized in OBM • Training and Instructional Design • Largest area of employment for MAs • Performance Management • Focus of this course • Systems Analysis - Organizational Development *these differ from Aamdot’s list: his are more general (Note: no articles training or systems; not counseling or clinical. EAP programs counseling/clinical/social work degrees; recent health and wellness programs - yes)

5 SO 3 NFE: The I and O in I/O Psychology • Industrial • Focuses on the individual worker/position • Determining the requirements of each job/position • Selecting individuals who have those requirements • Training individuals to improve their competency • Organizational • Any aspect of the organization and structure that affects performance and/or satisfaction • Reward/pay systems • Feedback systems • Organizational structure (systems analysis) (distinction that has little relevance today, overlap between the two, but remains in the name)

6 SO 4: Some I/O history - first area of application • The oldest area of application and the one that still dominates today is Personnel Selection & Placement. • Main difference between I/O programs and OBM programs. • Personnel Selection got started by selection and placement of military personnel in WWI & WWII • Clinical tests, typically intelligence and personality tests, and used them to test recruits (emphasis influences other aspects of training - statistical methods used to determine reliability and validity of tests - job relatedness; SO 8 – Aamodt, at least 5 stats courses in PH. D. IO)

7 SO 5: Putting the “O” in I/O psychology • One of the greatest episodes in the formation of I/O according to many: Hawthorne Studies in the 1930 s • Heretofore restricted to the “I” in I/O: job analysis, selection, and training • Expanded to the “O” in I/O psychology human relations, the work environment, and attitudes (especially job satisfaction and group morale)

8 SO 6: Personnel Selection (NFE) • I/O expanded greatly when Congress passed Title VII Civil Rights Act, 1964 • Banned unfair discrimination against minorities and females • I/O has a “lock” on personnel selection as a profession Other EEO Laws: • Age Discrimination • Vietnam/Disabled Veterans • Americans with Disabilities Act (overlap between I/O and OBM and other areas: mgt – 0% MBA programs, human resources, Industrial engineer - selection remains I/O. don’t deal with laws and issues here, personnel selection)

9 SO 9: Where do I/O psychologists work? • 9 A: MAs (learn top two for exam) • Private Industry 44% • Consulting firms 37% • Public Government 11% • Higher education <1% • 9 B: Ph. D. s (learn top three for exam) • Higher education 40% • Consulting firms 25% • Private Industry 23% • Public Government 8% (note difference Ph. D universities vs. industry; difference MA, private, more likely to work in private business with MA; consulting firms, interesting data, first time HSS)

10 SO 10: Employment outlook and growth of the field • In 2014 the Bureau of Labor Statistics predicted that the opportunities for IO psychologists were expected to increase by 53% between 2012 -2022!! • Largest expected increase of any field! (Note salary – higher)

11 SO 10, but NFE: Growth of field Year • 1945 • 1960 • 1970 • 1980 • 1995 • 2000 • 2014 SIOP Members 130 700 1, 100 1, 800 2, 800 4, 500 5, 700 8, 000 8, 300 (great if we had that many OBM Net members? )

12 SO 11: $$ Salaries - SIOP Survey 2016(NFE) Median Starting Median Overall Male Median Female Median Ph. D $80, 000 $119, 000 $117, 000 $104, 000 MA $67, 000 $84, 000 $ Starting salary for MAs is high, $50, 000 $ Profs significantly lower than practitioners $ Gender gap is closing; in 1982, females earned 81% of males, in 2016 they earned 90% (Male/female Ph. D&MA combined; about 50% of students are now female; 12% when I got my IO degree in 1977; WMU figures in Sos; females earn less than males at all ranks. )

13 Facts about I/O psychology • SO 12: Primary professional organization for I/O psychology Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychology Web site: www. siop. org Also, SIOP is Division 14 of APA (Behavior Analysis is Division 25)

14 Facts about I/O psychology • SO 13: Primary journal for I/O psychology (NFE) Journal of Applied Psychology Note list of 22 journals in Table 1. 5 JOBM is not included (little cross-fertilization between IO psychology and OBM: At this point in time most OBM practitioners/students don’t know much about IO and vice versa )

15 Facts about I/O psychology • SO 14: Percentage of Ph. D psychologists who are I/O psychologists 4% Thus, it’s not surprising that people don’t know about us

16 SO 15: Licensing of IO Psychologists (this slide NFE) • Very different than clinical psychology • Varies from state to state • Some require it, most don’t • Some states preclude it - i. e. , MI • Educational and experiential requirements focus on clinical/counseling courses and internships • Academics (who do not practice) do not have to be licensed (next few sos, licensing in IO psychology, and certification/licensing in BA)

17 SO 15: SIOP opposes licensing - why? • SIOP maintains that I/O psychologists • Should be able to be licensed • But should not be required to be licensed • Main reason why licensing is not needed • Licensing is designed to protect the public in health care areas (mental and behavioral health). I/O psychologists are not health care providers and do not deal with vulnerable populations. • Same main argument OBM practitioners are making about license laws for behavior analysts • SIOP successfully blocked some states from passing license laws covering I/O ~15 years ago (licensing originally to protect public - vulnerable populations, health care areas Next slide, certification/licensing of behavior analysts, )

18 NFE: Certification vs. Licensing, Behavior Analysts • Organizations that oversee credentialing • Certification: Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB) • Nonprofit international organization (separate from ABAI) • Licensing: Individual states • Differences • Certification is voluntary while licensing is legally required • Requirements for certification are the same from state to state and around the globe while requirements for licensing vary from state to state (independent from ABAI; compliance overseen by licensing boards established by the state; Legal penalties for violating license laws , 27 states have license laws)

19 NFE: Requirements for Certification and Licensing are similar: Why? • Certification predated licensing • National certification began ~1998, licensing began ~2009 • BACB anticipated licensing and developed and posted a “model” license law on its web site • States: why re-invent the wheel when a well-respected organization had already developed standards and an exam? • Certified behavior analysts were typically the ones who advocated for license laws and spearheaded their adoption and thus encourage states to adopt the model license law or something similar (In almost all states, the requirements for licensing are the same or similar to requirements for certification; some states, identical; in a few you must be certified to be licensed; any event, similar. )

20 SOs 16 & 17: Why license laws? • To protect at risk-individuals seeking behavior analytic clinical services • To accompany autism insurance laws that have recently been passed, specifying and regulating the individuals who can receive insurance reimbursement • Some behavior analysts believe license laws should protect all consumers, not just at-risk individuals (also thus protecting the field in general) • Some believe that we will not achieve the same status as other professionals (doctors, licensed clinical psychologists) unless we are licensed (first two are the main ones; some states use certification as standard; Employees, athletes, college students, etc. ; Sympathetic with last one but primarily related to HSS, clinical settings; because of these differing views, two broad category of laws)

21 SO 18: Two types of laws • Restrictive laws • Only behavior analysts who provide clinical services to individuals need to be licensed, for example • Those who work with children diagnosed with autism • Those who work with individuals with developmental and intellectual disabilities • Those who work with seniors with dementia • Broad title and practice laws • You cannot call yourself a behavior analyst (title) or practice behavior analysis (practice) unless you are licensed (in general, two types of laws, although one state has a “title” law; first type relates to the first 2 reasons on the previous slide, the last type relates to all four reasons; )

22 States that have each type (according to Dr. D. ) • Restrictive laws: 21 states • Alabama, Alaska, Hawaii, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Nevada, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, and Washington • Michigan passed a restrictive law in 2016, effective date ~2018 • Broad title and practice laws: 6 states • Arizona, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Missouri, Vermont, Wisconsin (I could very well be wrong; it is hard to interpret the laws; talk more about this in the article)

23 Future trend for restrictive vs broad title and practice laws • Seventeen laws were passed within the past 3 years: all were restrictive, but one • Due to revision of the BACB model license law in 2012, including wording for the potential exclusion of applied behavior analysts who provide non-clinical services, and explicitly OBM practitioners and applied animal trainers • Seems to be the trend (although again I could be wrong) (I could very well be wrong; it is hard to interpret the laws; talk more about this in the article)

24 SO 19: Reasons why most OBMers are not certified and oppose licensing • OBM does not deal with at-risk individuals (same reason SIOP opposes licensing for I/O psychologists) • OBM clients/organizations are private pay and will always be private pay, thus insurance reimbursement is not at stake and, hence, our clients/organizations do not require it • Except for basic behavioral principles, the current certification process, particularly the exam, is not relevant for those in OBM (next slide, the fourth reason)

25 SO 19: Reasons why most OBMers are not certified and oppose licensing: A fourth reason • *Licensing, given the current requirements, would detract from the training of our students • OBM students need different skills and training than those currently required for licensing (and certification) • Without increasing the number of credit hours in our graduate training program, we could not train our students as well (Note that I did not say are opposed to certification: that is voluntary. Also, I know I said 3 reasons in the Sos the fourth, which I consider to be the most important is actually an implication or result of the third) (don’t forget SO 20 even though I am not covering it in lecture)

26 Discussion of Certification and OBM • Certification is not as controversial as licensing because it is voluntary • It is, however, making it more difficult for our students to obtain academic positions. Why? • Most colleges and universities have limited resources and most do have OBM programs or OBM tracks within their BA programs. Thus, when they hire, even if they would like someone to teach some OBM courses (Psychology of Work, Training, Systems Analysis), they are requiring BACB certification so that those faculty can also contribute to the certification and supervision of students who seek certification

27 NFE: Unintended and unfortunate result of certification and licensing • Many people in the field now believe that the terms “behavior analyst” and “applied behavior analyst” refer only to those who provide clinical services (i. e. , autism) • Many areas of specialization in behavior analysis and many applied behavior analysts • Organizational behavior management • Traffic and pedestrian safety • School psychologists and educational technologists • Community behavior analysis (sustainability) • Health and wellness • Sports psychology • (Sensitive issue for many of us. In a sense, understandable-behavior analysis versus our IOBM program; Cannot call certified BA or licensed BA, but that gets lost in translation; If you go into HS, don’t forget that the rest of us are BA as well! Questions over certification or licensing? )

28 SOME MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN I/O AND OBM Bucklin et al. , 2000 (only highlight some important differences - embedded those in sos)

29 Purpose To identify similarities and differences with respect to topics and research methods used in OBM and traditional I/O psychology

30 Method • JAP • Authors reviewed every article in JAP between 1987 & 1997 (N = 997) • Classifications were primarily derived from Nolan et al. (1999) who previously analyzed articles in JOBM for the same years (N=119) • JOBM • JAP classification results were compared to JOBM data collected by Nolan et al. (1999)

31 Qualification on the data • Van. Stelle et al. (2012) published an updated review of the publications in JOBM • Reviewed articles published between 1998 -2009 • I couldn’t use these updated data because there aren’t any comparisons with JAP • I compared the JOBM data from the two articles, however, and was struck by similarity of data (DVs, IVS, social validity; some of the differences simply reflect the interests of the academics)

32 SO 21: No unifying theory in I/O (NFE) • I/O Psychology • No unifying theory historically • No unifying theory today • At least 10 motivational theories: Aamodt • At least 8 leadership theories: Aamodt • Motivational theories and leadership theories (already 18 different theories) • Leads to research and articles about who is right

33 SO 21: Unifying theory of OBM (NFE) • OBM (emerged in the late 60 s and early 70 s) • Unifying theory of behavior analysis • Emerged from other areas in behavior analysis - programmed instruction (Brethower) - clinical psychology (Daniels, Gilbert) - experimental (Anderson, Brown) - general applied (Hopkins) - education (Sulzer-Azaroff) • Behavior analysis is unique - apply the same principles across all specializations (not only for topics within OBM)

34 SO 22: Topics in JAP & JOBM 22 A: Rank order top 3 in JAP JOBM 1. Selection & 1. Productivity & Quality Placement 2. Statistical Analysis Procedures 3. Performance Appraisal 2. Customer Satisfaction 3. Training and Development

35 SO 22 B: Of top 12 topics, commonalities Only three!! 1. Productivity & Quality 2. Training & Development 3. Health & Safety

36 Differences (NFE) • Ranking : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. JAP Selection/Placement Statistical Analysis Performance Appraisal Attitudes, Cognition Legal Issues Turnover, Absenteeism, Attendance 7. T & D 8. Productivity & Quality 9. Gender & Minority 10. Group Performance 11. Leadership/Decision Making 12. Safety, Health JOBM 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Productivity & Quality Customer Satisfaction T&D Safety, Health Accuracy Rate of Performance Sales Labor Cost Timeliness Novelty Management/Systems Analysis (most OBM articles dealth with productivity & quality issues, 5 -10 measures; more breadth I/O)

37 SO 23: Primary research strategy • Percentage of research articles that were experimental vs correlational (NFE) JOBM JAP Experimental 95% 40% Correlational 5% 60% • Primary research strategy • JOBM: Experimental • JAP: Correlational • What is the problem with correlational research? (in this and the next few Sos, I have rounded the %s to make it easier for you to learn)

38 SO 24: Field vs. Laboratory Exp. (NFE) Experimental Setting JOBM N = 60 JAP N = 308 Field 80% 20% Laboratory 20% 80% (NFE, but using this to make a point later, % reversed)

39 SO 25: Applied vs. Theoretical Research Studies Research Question JOBM N = 60 JAP N = 308 Theoretical 55% 95% Applied 45% 5% (more applied studies in the Van. Stelle 2012 review– 73%)

40 OBM vs. I/O (NFE) • The percentage of experimental studies conducted in the field was much higher in JOBM = 80% JAP = 20% • The percentage of applied vs. theoretical experimental studies was much higher in JOBM = 45% JAP = 5% • Conclusion OBM is more applied and the gap between research and practice appears to be larger in I/O than in OBM (Recent issue of SIOP magazine, devoted to the gap; they know it)

41 SO 28: Independent Variables, how many were the same? JAP (N=308) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. JOBM (N=60) Antecedents/ 71% Information Training 15% Goals 10% Feedback 8% Monetary consequences 5% Non-monetary consequences 1% 1. Praise 7. . 3% 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 8. 9. Feedback Training Monetary consequences Antecedents/ Information Non-monetary consequences Goals Praise Punishment System design 75% 63% 32% 28% 25% 18% 5% 2% (Moving to SO 28: top 7 were the same, but proportion very different. JAP antecedents/JOBM consq, pack; Combined goals, feedback, consq. ; not surprising I am covering the topics I am in this class; Not changed much in 2012 review; package interventions more effective, in sos articles)

42 SO 28: Independent variables in studies • In I/O The main IV is antecedent/instructional control • Consequences are manipulated only rarely • • 70% manipulated antecedents; only 15% examined feedback or consequences • In OBM • Antecedents are rarely used alone • Consequences are manipulated much more • Feedback, 75% and consequences, 65% • Package interventions are used much more frequently • This is an artifact of the types of studies conducted; a considerable more percentage of OBM studies are applied vs. lab studies in contrast to I/O studies

43 Dependent Variables (NFE) • JAP • Self-report measures were used in 50% of experimental studies and 75% of correlational studies; • Behaviors in only 5% of studies • JOBM • Products of behaviors (accomplishments) were used in 80% of experimental studies • Behaviors in 45%

44 HISTORY OF OBM IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR 1950 - 1980 Dickinson, 2000

45 SO 31: When did OBM become visible? OBM started in the late 1960 s and early 1970 s

46 NFE: Lifetime Achievement or Outstanding Contributions Awards 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Aubrey Daniels Thomas Gilbert Edward Feeney Beth Sulzer-Azaroff Thomas Mawhinney Dale Brethower William Redmon Alyce Dickinson Paul Brown Geary Rummler Chevron Chemical Corp (CLG, Darry Callahan) Terry Mc. Sween Jon Bailey Maria Malott D. Chris Anderson 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. William Abernathy Hank Pennypacker Scott Geller John Austin Dwight Harshbarger Timothy Ludwig Terry Mc. Sween Judy Agnew Alyce Dickinson Fabio Tosolin Carl Binder William Abernathy Julie Smith Lief Andersson Dale Brethower (red: wmu connection, 11 of 30; names listed twice)

47 OBM Precursors: 1950 s • SO 32: Who is responsible for programmed instruction? Skinner • The science of learning and the art of teaching, 1954 • Teaching machines, 1958 • Holland & Skinner, Analysis of Behavior, 1961 • SO 33: First organized application of behavioral principles in business & industry • Programmed instruction (more on this later)

48 SO 34: OBM precursors, cont. (NFE) • Applications in other areas in behavior analysis began before OBM • Authors who published the first applied article in the field of behavior analysis • Ayllon & Michael: The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer, JEAB, 1959 • Who is the father of behavior modification and thus the grandfather of OBM? (according to Hopkins) • Jack Michael

49 The 1960 s: OBM gets started • Articles & books - fewer than 10 during the whole decade (NFE) • SO 35: First professional organization • National Society for Programmed Instruction: 1962, 12 years before ABAI • Now, International Society for Performance Improvement (applied vs academic) • Dale Brethower, Geary Rummler, Don Tosti, Susan Meyer Markle, Tom Gilbert • www. ispi. org (great resource for jobs)

50 University of Michigan workshops (NFE) • U of M workshops, 1961 -1969 • Center of Programmed Instruction • Brethower, Rummler, Gilbert, (& Malott) hooked up (B&R actually published first applied OBM article in Personnel in 1966) • There, programmed instruction led to performance- based instruction, which led to behavioral systems analysis • Brethower, Center for Programmed Instruction • Rummler, College of Business

51 SO 36: Brethower’s accomplishments • Three main accomplishments • Programmed instruction • Performance-based instruction • Behavioral systems analysis • Other interesting things to know • Published first behavioral systems book in 1972. • The book was published by a publishing firm called “Behaviordelia” - run by Dr. Dick Malott • You can still buy a copy at dickmalott. com • Was my advisor here at WMU!

52 SO 37: How did PI lead to PBI then BSA? • Programmed Instruction • Very skilled at getting people to learn what they taught, but often the training did not transfer to the job • Performance-based instruction (PM, really) • Did training actually transfer to job? • Led to performance management - it wasn’t the training that was the problem, but the management system • Behavioral Systems Analysis (the BIG picture) • PBI and PM got transfer to the job, but… • Was the performance contributing to the mission/goals of the organization?

53 SO 38: Brethower, Rummler, & Gilbert • Brethower and Rummler developed behavior systems analysis together when they were graduate students at UM in the 60 s • Gilbert was invited to teach some of the workshops at UM • Rummler and Gilbert started a consulting firm together (Praxis in NYC) that was one of the first behavioral consulting firms in the country • 1967 -G, 1969 -R, dissolved 1979 and sold to Kepner- Tregoe (Work of these individuals is very similar – not a coincidence)

54 SO 39: Gilbert’s book and date • Human Competence, 1978 • Introduced the concept of “worthy performance” and focusing on accomplishments vs. behavior - very controversial in the field. • Behavior Engineering Model was one of the first comprehensive performance diagnostic tools for the field. • Binder’s six boxes based on this model: We will look at the next unit • PIP: potential for improving performance • Exemplar performance minus average performance = PIP. • Many consultants use some variant of this today. (define accomplishments; JOBM issue next year/OBM conference 40 years 1995 unfinished autobiography, Human Incompetence )

55 SO 40: Aubrey Daniels • Formed Behavior Systems, Inc. , 1971 • With Larry Miller & Fran Tarkenton • First editor of JOBM, 1977 • Practitioner journal, BSI • Published one of the first books in OBM (written for supervisors) • Performance Management, now in its 5 th edition • New edition: Daniels & Bailey Aubrey has retired from ADI, Thomas Spencer, A WVU grad, (Minnesota Vikings, “got divorced, ” ADI founded in 1978)

56 SO 41: Where did the name of our field come from? • JOBM, 1977 • Aubrey Daniels • Problem with name • Not distinctive within business - OB vs. OBM • Business people don’t understand it • Their kids behave (misbehave); their workers perform • Performance Management - still a problem

57 SO 42 A: First graduate program to offer OBM and systems analysis? • Western Michigan University!!! • Early 1970 s, Applied Behavior Analysis program

58 SO 42 B: First faculty member at WMU? • Dr. Dick Malott was responsible for the systems analysis training here at WMU • Dr. Malott graduated the first students trained specifically in systems • 1978, Brethower joined faculty to behavioralize MA program in I/O, due to Dr. Malott • 1984 Dickinson joined WMU faculty • My generation, first students trained in OBM

59 SO 43 • How do early events in traditional I/O, business and management fields relate to the development of OBM? • They were chronological precursors but not causal precursors, unlike many have maintained when writing about the history of OBM • Field of OBM emanated from the field of behavior analysis

60 SO 43, cont. • Why does Dickinson maintain OBM came from behavior analysis and was not much influenced by I/O, business, or management fields? • The individuals who most influenced and pioneered the field came from other areas within behavior analysis, not from these traditional fields • Aubrey Daniels - clinical • Dale Brethower - school psychology • Beth Sulzer-Azaroff - education • Bill Hopkins - general behavior analysis • Tom Gilbert - clinical • Paul Brown – experimental • Chris Anderson – experimental • Chuck Crowell - experimental

61 THAT’S ALL FOLKS! • Questions? • E 1: Wednesday, 9/13

62 PM vs BSA conflict (NFE) • Sales vs manufacturing: classic problem Implement a sales incentive program so your sales representatives sell a lot of cars, but manufacturing can’t keep up. That creates a long delay for the consumer who then buys a car from someone else. Your PM program for sales has worked, but to the detriment of the entire organization.