生態學 (Ecology) 2005 鄭先祐(Ayo) 靜宜大學 生態學系 Ayo 台南站： http: //mail. nutn. edu. tw/~hycheng/ Email add: Japalura@hotmail. com Ecology 2005
Manuel C. Molles Jr. p (2005) p Ecology: Concepts and Applications. p 3 rd ed. p Mc. Graw Hill. p Ecology 2005 2
About the Author Manuel C. Molles Jr. p Professor of Biology at the university of New Mexico (since 1975) p Ph. D. (Dept. Ecology and Evolutionary Biology of the University of Arizona) p He has taught and conducted ecological research in Latin American, the Caribbean, and Europe. p Originally trained as a marine ecologist and fisheries biologist. p Ecology 2005 3
研究主題 His research has covered a wide range of ecological levels, including behavioral ecology, population biology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology, biogeography of stream insects and the influence of a large-scale climate system (El Nino) on the dynamics of southwestern river and riparian ecosystems. p His current research concerns the effects of flooding and exotic vegetation on the structure and dynamics of the Rio Grande riparian ecosystems. p Ecology 2005 4
教學、研究與服務 p Dr. Molles has attempted to combine research, teaching, and service, involving undergraduate as well as graduate students in his ongoing projects. Ecology 2005 5
Table of Contents n Chapter 1 Introduction: What is Ecology? Section p Section p I Natural History (自然史) II Individuals (個體) III Population Ecology (族群生態學) IV Interactions (互動) V Communities and Ecosystems ( 社群與生態體系) p Section VI Large-scale Ecology (大尺度生態學 ) Ecology 2005 6
p Section I Natural History (自然史) n n p Chapter 2 Life on Land Chapter 3 Life in Water Section II Individuals (個體) n n Chapter 4 5 6 7 Temperature Relations Water Relations Energy and Nutrient Relations Social Relations Ecology 2005 7
p Section III Population Ecology (族群生態學) n n n p Chapter Chapter 8 Population Genetics and Natural Selection 9 Population Distribution and Abundance 10 Population Dynamics 11 Population Growth 12 Life Histories Section IV Interactions (互動) n n n Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Parasitism, Chapter 15 Competition Exploitation: Predation, Herbivory, and Disease Mutualism Ecology 2005 8
p Section V Communities and Ecosystems (社群與 生態體系) n n n p Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Structure Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Species Abundance and Diversity Species Interactions and Community Primary Production and Energy Flow Nutrient Cycling and Retention Succession and Stability Section VI Large-scale Ecology (大尺度生態學) n n n Chapter 21 Landscape Ecology Chapter 22 Geographic Ecology Chapter 23 Global Ecology 2005 9
Preface The accelerating pace of ecological discovery makes staying current with the field very difficult. p However, with careful organization and modern tolls, such as the Internet, they come close. p Ecology 2005 10
Unique Approach p p 1991, Paul Risser challenged ecology instructors to focus their attention on the major concepts of the field. If we subdivide a large and dynamic subject, such as ecology, too finely, we cannot cover it in one or two academic terms. This book attempts to address Risser’s challenge. Each chapter is organized around two or four major concepts, presenting the student with a manageable and memorable synthesis of the subject. Ecology 2005 11
基本先修課程 Basic chemistry p Mathematics p General biology (physiology, biological diversity, and evolution) p Ecology 2005 12
Features designed with the student in mind p p p p Introduction Concepts Concept discussions Application & Tools Investigating the Evidence (Boxes) Illustrations Summary End-of-Chapter material n n n Review questions Suggested readings On the Net Ecology 2005 13
End-of-Book Materials: p Appendixes n n n Abbreviations used in this text List of Chapter Concepts Statistical Tables Glossary p References p Ecology 2005 14
Useful supplements Digital content Manger (DCM)CD-Rom: p Instructor’s testing and Resource CD-Rom: p Transparencies p Online Learning Center (OLC) p n p http: //www. mhhe. com/ecology Ecology essential study partner CD-Rom: Ecology 2005 15
Packaging opportunities p p p p p Exploring Environmental science with GIS General Ecology Lab Manual, 8 th edition Field and Lab methods for General Ecology, 4 th edition Conservation Biology workbook Annual Edition: Environment Taking slides: Clashing views on controversial environmental issues Sources: Notable selections in environmental studies, 2 nd edition. Student Atlas of Environmental Issues You can make a difference: be environmentally responsible. Ecology 2005 16
Chap. 1 Introduction: What is Ecology? p Overview of Ecology n n The Ecology of Forest birds: using field studies to test theory The Ecology bumblebees: contribution of field and laboratory studies Forest nutrient budgets: inventories and largescale experiments Vegetation changes: information from pollen records and modeling The Nature and scope of Ecology p On the Net p Ecology 2005 17
Overview of Ecology p Ecology: Study of relationships between organisms and the environment. n p Simple definition does not convey the extreme breadth of this discipline. Ecosystem: Includes all organisms living in an area, and the physical environment with which these organisms interact. n Biosphere: Highest level of ecological organization. Ecology 2005 18
What is Ecology? Ecology 的字首是來自希臘的oikos，意指 “house”，也就是我們周遭的環境。 p 1870年德國動物學者 Ernst Haeckel的定義： the study of the natural environment and of the relations of organisms to one another and to their surroundings. p Ecology is the science by which we study how organisms interact in and with the natural world. p Ecology 2005 19
This text, The Economy of Nature, presents the basic principles of the scientific discipline of ecology. p These principles have been defined through more than a century of observation, experimentation, and theoretical exploration of natural systems. p Ecological principles offer guidelines for the preservation of biodiversity and management of the environment for sustained use. p Robert E. Ricklefs and Gary L. Miller (2000) Ecology. 4 th ed. W. H. Freeman and Company. Ecology 2005 20
生態學是整合性的科學 生態經濟學、復原生態學(+ 程學)、保育生 態學(+野生動物的經營管理)、生物多樣性的 研究(+分類學)、生態毒理學(+化學)、地景( 景觀)生態學(+地理學)、溼地生態學(+水文 學)、農業生態學、環境倫理學(+哲學)。 p 生態學是一門整合科學，它有強大潛力作為科 學與社會之間的橋樑。 p Ecology 2005 21
Ecology is an interdisciplinary science. Ecology 2005 22
Four broad areas Behavioral ecology (行為生態學) p Population ecology (族群生態學) p Community ecology (群區生態學) p Ecosystems ecology (生態體系生態學) p Ecology is to environmental Science as physics is to engineering. Ecology 2005 23
Galaxies E C O L O G Y Scale Earth Ecosystems Communities Populations Community ecology Po pu lat ion olo or Tissues C E L L gy Molecules Atoms B I O L O G Y gy lo co Cells e al Organs B I O C H E M I S T R Y ec vi ha Organisms ystem Ecosogy ecol Be P H Y S I O L O G Y Solar system Ecology 2005 Fig. 1. 3 The organizational levels of ecology 24
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生命世界的組成架構 Ecology 2005 26
Ecology of Forest Birds p Mac. Arthur studied ecology of five species of warblers in spruce forests in N. A. n Theory predicted two species with identical ecological requirements could not coexist indefinitely. p Studies found warblers coexisted by feeding in different zones of the same tree. Ecology 2005 27
Warbler Feeding Zones Ecology 2005 28
Ecology of Bumblebees p Bumblebees regions. live in many cool n Heinrich estimated energy budget of individuals foraging on different flowers and under different temperatures. p Energy Gain / Loss § Energy Intake - Energy Expenditure. Ecology 2005 29
Ecology of Bumblebees p Field and Laboratory Results Amount of energy expended during flight was independent of air temperature. n Bees elevated temperature of thorax to stay warm in cool climates. n Ecology 2005 30
Ecology of Bumblebees Ecology 2005 31
Forest Nutrient Budgets p Due to heavy rainfall, many rainforest soils are nutrient-poor. n Nutrient stores in rainforest canopies are associated with epiphytes. p Epiphyte mats contain significant quantities of nutrients. § Trees send roots up to epiphyte mats to access nutrients. Ecology 2005 32
Forest Nutrient Budgets p Likens and Bormann estimated 90% of nutrients in a New Hampshire forest were locked up in soil organic matter. n n Approximately 9. 5 % was tied up in vegetation. Streamflow output amounted to < 1%. Ecology 2005 33
Vegetation Change: Pollen Records Many environmental changes occur over large spatial or temporal scales. p Davis monitored plant pollen deposited in lake sediments in the Appalachian Mtns. p n Documented large temporal changes to nearby plant communities. Ecology 2005 34
Vegetation Change: Pollen Records p Milne modeled transitions between ecosystems (ecotones) as phase transitions. n Searched for edges between critical densities of vegetation along ecotones. p Suggested areas of gradual change within a landscape are most likely to contain biological responses to environmental changes. Ecology 2005 35
Vegetation History from Pollen Sediments Ecology 2005 36
Nature and Scope of Ecology p Ecology: Study of relationships between organisms and the environment. n Wide variety of approaches. p Large temporal and spatial scales. § Field § Lab § Observational § Manipulative Ecology 2005 37
The Scientific method— Questions and Hypotheses p p p Scientist ask and attempt to find answers to questions about the natural world. Questions are the guiding lights of the scientific process. A hypothesis is a possible answer to a question. The next step is to determine its validity by testing predictions that follow from the hypothesis. Three fundamental ways to test hypotheses are through observation, experiments and modeling. Ecology 2005 38
What is the ``scientific method''? 1. Observe some aspect of the universe. 2. Invent a tentative description, called a hypothesis, that is consistent with what you have observed. 3. Use the hypothesis to make predictions. 4. Test those predictions by experiments or further observations and modify the hypothesis in the light of your results. 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until there are no discrepancies between theory and experiment and/or observation. Ecology 2005 39
When consistency is obtained the hypothesis becomes a theory and provides a coherent set of propositions which explain a class of phenomena. p A theory is then a framework within which observations are explained and predictions are made. p Ecology 2005 40
Fig. 1 Graphic summary of the scientific method. Ecology 2005 41
Experimental Problems p Logistic problems lead to low replication p Which leads to a Type I error; declaring that a hypothesis is false when in fact it is true. (否定 null 假說，但事實上是「null 假說 是成立的」) p Low replications lead to greater standard error (SE) values. Ecology 2005 42
two types of error in measurement p type I error—the conclusion that there is an effect when in fact there is none, (否 定 null 假說，但事實是「假說是成立的」) p type II error—when an impact exists but is not detected. (接受 null 假說，但事實是 「假說是錯誤的」) Ecology 2005 43
two types of error p 自然現象的研究，盡量的下降 type I error。 n n p 盡量避免否定 null 假說。 如此可以避免研究方向的錯誤。 然而，對於自然資源(災害)的研究，則需要選擇 下降 type 2 error n 譬如：漁業資源的耗減 Ecology 2005 44
Review Overview of Ecology p Ecology of Forest Birds p Ecology of Bumblebees p Forest Nutrient Budgets p Vegetation Change: Pollen Records p Nature and Scope of Ecology p Ecology 2005 45
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On the net p http: //www. mhhe. com/ecology n n n p http: //highered. mcgrawhill. com/sites/0072439696/student_view 0/chapter 1/web _links. html Careers in Science http: //www. mhhe. com/links/pages/General_Biology/Car eers_in_Science/ Scientific method http: //www. mhhe. com/links/pages/General_Biology/Scie ntific_Method/ Ayo 靜宜站：http: //www 1. pu. edu. tw/~hycheng Ecology 2005 47
Careers in Biology p Biology Careers for the Next Century n p Careers in Biology. n p http: //www. emporia. edu/biosci/carebiol. htm#jobs Environmental Jobs and Careers n p http: //www. mhhe. com/cgi-bin/links/jump. cgi? ID=56 http: //www. ejobs. org/ Sources for Information on Careers in Biology, Conservation, & Oceanography – n http: //www. mhhe. com/cgi-bin/links/jump. cgi? ID=51 Ecology 2005 48
Scientific Method p Introduction to the Scientific method n http: //teacher. nsrl. rochester. edu/phy_labs/Ap pendix. E/Appendix. E. html Ecology 2005 49
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