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Lecture 5 (The English Noun).pptx

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THE ENGLISH NOUN AND ITS GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES THE ENGLISH NOUN AND ITS GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES

1. General characteristics of the noun as a part of speech. 2. The category 1. General characteristics of the noun as a part of speech. 2. The category of number. 3. The category of case. 4. The problem of gender in English. 5

1. General Characteristics of the Noun The noun is: the central lexical unit of 1. General Characteristics of the Noun The noun is: the central lexical unit of language; 5

General Characteristics of the Noun the main nominative unit of speech; 5 General Characteristics of the Noun the main nominative unit of speech; 5

General Characteristics of the Noun the part of speech able to isolate different properties General Characteristics of the Noun the part of speech able to isolate different properties of substances and present them as corresponding self dependent substances 5

General Characteristics of the Noun E. g. : Her words were unexpectedly bitter. - General Characteristics of the Noun E. g. : Her words were unexpectedly bitter. - We were struck by the unexpected bitterness of her words. At that time he was down in his career, but we knew well that very soon he would be up again. His career had its ups and downs. 5

General Characteristics of the Noun Note: This natural and practically unlimited substantivization force establishes General Characteristics of the Noun Note: This natural and practically unlimited substantivization force establishes the noun as the central nominative lexemic unit of language. 5

General Characteristics of the Noun The class of nouns is: the most numerous (in General Characteristics of the Noun The class of nouns is: the most numerous (in English nouns make up about 42% of all words); 5

General Characteristics of the Noun the most frequently used part of speech (every fourth General Characteristics of the Noun the most frequently used part of speech (every fourth word used in our speech belongs to the class of nouns); 5

General Characteristics of the Noun very open E. g. But Piper had covered eleven General Characteristics of the Noun very open E. g. But Piper had covered eleven typewritten pages, full of whereases. . . (I. Shaw); No, it's intolerable! Their smiles, their how-it-goings (Penguin Modern Stories). 5

General Characteristics of the Noun Traditionally grammarians tried to define a noun as “the General Characteristics of the Noun Traditionally grammarians tried to define a noun as “the name for person, place or thing”. But: red is the name of a color by this definition it should be a noun it is most usually an adjective (red pencil). 5

General Characteristics of the Noun Like any part of speech, nouns can be adequately General Characteristics of the Noun Like any part of speech, nouns can be adequately defined only in terms of their grammatical behavior. 5

General Characteristics of the Noun The best way of identifying nouns is to use General Characteristics of the Noun The best way of identifying nouns is to use a suitable grammatical frame: ↓ For the noun there are 2 frames: 1) The — was nice 2) The — were nice. 5

General Characteristics of the Noun As any other part of speech, the noun can General Characteristics of the Noun As any other part of speech, the noun can be characterized by three criteria: - semantic (the meaning), -morphological (the form and grammatical categories), - syntactical (functions, distribution). 5

General Characteristics of the Noun Semantic features of the noun The grammatical meaning of General Characteristics of the Noun Semantic features of the noun The grammatical meaning of thingness, substance. 5

General Characteristics of the Noun Substance is a very wide notion. Therefore the class General Characteristics of the Noun Substance is a very wide notion. Therefore the class of nouns unites: 1) the center of the class (names of objects and persons ) 5

General Characteristics of the Noun 2) the periphery of the class by means of General Characteristics of the Noun 2) the periphery of the class by means of which the noun interacts with the other parts of speech: names of qualities (generosity, viability), processes (conversation, debate), states (illness, oblivion), abstract notions (freedom, love), manner of action (way, manner). 5

General Characteristics of the Noun Several subclasses: proper and common (according to the type General Characteristics of the Noun Several subclasses: proper and common (according to the type of nomination); - animate and inanimate (according to the form of existence; → on the basis of “personal quality” animate nouns fall into human and non-human); countable and uncountable (according to their quantitative structure); concrete and abstract. 5

General Characteristics of the Noun Morphological features of the noun simple, derived (stem + General Characteristics of the Noun Morphological features of the noun simple, derived (stem + affix, affix + stem — thingness); - compound (stern + stem — armchair); composite (the Hague). 5

General Characteristics of the Noun The most productive means of noun-building: suffixation (the suffix General Characteristics of the Noun The most productive means of noun-building: suffixation (the suffix er has the highest productivity, can derive nouns both from verbs and from phrases: e. g. a choker, a belonger, a mindreader, a beer drinker, a winterer in Europe, a butter-spreader, a headturner, a noun-user, a noun-leaver, a one -nighter, etc. ), 5

General Characteristics of the Noun conversion (to go - a go, to say - General Characteristics of the Noun conversion (to go - a go, to say - a say, to think - a think, to smoke a smoke), compounding (a copycat, a know-how, a humptydumpty). 5

General Characteristics of the Noun Morphological categories of the noun: number; case; *gender; *article General Characteristics of the Noun Morphological categories of the noun: number; case; *gender; *article determination. 5

General Characteristics of the Noun Syntactic features of the noun primary (the subject and General Characteristics of the Noun Syntactic features of the noun primary (the subject and the object) secondary syntactic functions (the attribute and adverbial modifier, e. g. a shadow Prime Minister, a stranger boy, a guest visa; a bit strange, to go shopping Russian style) 5

General Characteristics of the Noun in the position of the predicative the noun may General Characteristics of the Noun in the position of the predicative the noun may expose both primary and secondary semantic functions (that of classification and that of qualification, or characterization) E. g. : This is my husband He wasn’t pretty, but he was all soldier and very much man He was the only speaker at the moment 5

General Characteristics of the Noun combinability: the noun can go into right hand left General Characteristics of the Noun combinability: the noun can go into right hand left hand connections with practically all parts of speech; 5

General Characteristics of the Noun The most common noun determiners: articles (to turn round General Characteristics of the Noun The most common noun determiners: articles (to turn round the corner), pronouns (far from its destination), numerals (to take three books), adjectives (a blue ribbon), nouns in the common and genitive case (contact and casal combinability) (a cannon ball; the President’s speech). 5

General Characteristics of the Noun The cannon ball / stone wall problem 1) Is General Characteristics of the Noun The cannon ball / stone wall problem 1) Is the combination one separate compound word? 2) Is the combination a word group? 5

General Characteristics of the Noun The transformation test: Cf. : a cannon ball— a General Characteristics of the Noun The transformation test: Cf. : a cannon ball— a ball for cannon; a fire place where fire is made but not a place for fire 5

2. The Category of Number is a category which relates most directly to the 2. The Category of Number is a category which relates most directly to the number of entities. 5

The Category of Number Languages typically provide us with a rich vocabulary for expressing The Category of Number Languages typically provide us with a rich vocabulary for expressing number: none, three, twenty-seven, one-half, 0. 42, about a hundred, some, few, many, no more than four, a handful. But they have nothing to do with grammar. 5

The Category of Number Grammar distinctions are expressed through the grammatical category of number. The Category of Number Grammar distinctions are expressed through the grammatical category of number. 5

The Category of Number The grammatical category of number is the linguistic representation of The Category of Number The grammatical category of number is the linguistic representation of the objective category of quantity: Quantitativeness ↓ ↑ Category of number ← Quantity 5

The Category of Number The number category is realized through the binary privative opposition The Category of Number The number category is realized through the binary privative opposition of two form classes: the plural form : : the singular form. ↓ ↓ The number category is realized only within subclass of countable nouns. 5

The Category of Number the plural form : : the singular form traditional distinction The Category of Number the plural form : : the singular form traditional distinction ↓ many (more than one) one present-day distinction ↓ "the potentially dismembering "the non-dismembering reflection of the structure reflection of the structure of the referent“ of the referent" 5

The Category of Number Various paradigmatic meanings of plurality: discrete plurality (books, houses), indiscrete The Category of Number Various paradigmatic meanings of plurality: discrete plurality (books, houses), indiscrete plurality (hours, miles), partitive plurality (spectacles, trousers), … 5

The Category of Number … wines, cheeses, fruits, teas… 5 The Category of Number … wines, cheeses, fruits, teas… 5

The Category of Number variety plurality (wines, cheeses, fruits, teas) 5 The Category of Number variety plurality (wines, cheeses, fruits, teas) 5

The Category of Number … snows, sands, waters… 5 The Category of Number … snows, sands, waters… 5

The Category of Number space plurality (snows, sands, waters) 5 The Category of Number space plurality (snows, sands, waters) 5

The Category of Number … the Browns, the Smiths. . . 5 The Category of Number … the Browns, the Smiths. . . 5

The Category of Number family, or clan plurality (the Browns, the Smiths) 5 The Category of Number family, or clan plurality (the Browns, the Smiths) 5

The Category of Number These meanings are the result of the interaction between the The Category of Number These meanings are the result of the interaction between the general paradigmatic meaning and the semantics of the nouns. 5

The Category of Number Some plural forms of the nouns may acquire a new The Category of Number Some plural forms of the nouns may acquire a new lexical meaning. They become lexicalized E. g. : colours, customs, arms, quarters, minutes, etc. 5

The Category of Number The meanings of the singular (non plural) form of the The Category of Number The meanings of the singular (non plural) form of the noun: singularity (A minute of your attention, please), uncountability (We are as different as chalk and cheese), generalization (A child can understand this). 5

The Category of Number Uncountable nouns are subdivided into: Singularia Tantum (modified by much The Category of Number Uncountable nouns are subdivided into: Singularia Tantum (modified by much or little, take the finite verb in the singular); Pluralia Tantum 5

The Category of Number Which nouns belong to the group of Singularia Tantum? 5 The Category of Number Which nouns belong to the group of Singularia Tantum? 5

The Category of Number The group of Singularia Tantum: names of abstract notions (love, The Category of Number The group of Singularia Tantum: names of abstract notions (love, friendship); names of mass materials ( bread, butter, sugar); names of some collective inanimate objects (foliage, machinery); names of sciences and professional activities (medicine, architecture); nouns of heterogeneous semantics (hair, advice, knowledge, money, information, news). 5

The Category of Number Which nouns belong to the group of Pluralia Tantum? 5 The Category of Number Which nouns belong to the group of Pluralia Tantum? 5

The Category of Number The group of Pluralia Tantum nouns: nouns denoting objects consisting The Category of Number The group of Pluralia Tantum nouns: nouns denoting objects consisting of two parts (trousers, spectacles etc. ); nouns denoting results of repeated processes (savings, labours, belongings); nouns of multitude (police, gentry, poultry, cattle); nouns of various semantics (oats, outskirts, clothes etc. ). 5

The Category of Number In speech practically all the nouns can be used in The Category of Number In speech practically all the nouns can be used in the forms non specific to them. They acquire a new definite meaning: 5

The Category of Number E. g. : The ninth century saw the beginning of The Category of Number E. g. : The ninth century saw the beginning of a distinction between the various wines of Champagne It is ten miles of golden sands backed by pinewoods 5

The Category of Number E. g. : They were two loves which never deserted The Category of Number E. g. : They were two loves which never deserted me On her own as a mother, she had relaxed all the rules and found all the unexpected joys of being a parent 5

The Category of Number Conclusion: 1. The grammatical meaning of number may not coincide The Category of Number Conclusion: 1. The grammatical meaning of number may not coincide with the notional quantity: the noun in the singular does not necessarily denote one object; the plural form may be used to denote one object consisting of several parts. 5

The Category of Number The singular form may denote: an individual separate object (a The Category of Number The singular form may denote: an individual separate object (a cat); the whole class (The cat is a domestic animal); indiscreteness or uncountableness (money, milk). 5

The Category of Number The plural form may denote: the existence of several objects The Category of Number The plural form may denote: the existence of several objects (cats); the inner discreteness (jeans). 5

The Category of Number 2. All nouns may be subdivided into three groups: The The Category of Number 2. All nouns may be subdivided into three groups: The nouns in which the opposition of explicit discreteness / indiscreteness is expressed (cat : : cats). 5

The Category of Number The nouns in which this opposition is not expressed explicitly The Category of Number The nouns in which this opposition is not expressed explicitly but is revealed by syntactical and lexical correlation in the context (Singularia Tantum and Pluralia Tantum). 5

The Category of Number The nouns with homogenous number forms. The number opposition here The Category of Number The nouns with homogenous number forms. The number opposition here is not expressed formally but is revealed only lexically and syntactically in the context (Look! A sheep is eating grass. - Look! The sheep are eating grass). 5

3. The Category of Case In modern linguistics case is understood as a semantic 3. The Category of Case In modern linguistics case is understood as a semantic category which presents the underlying set of relations between the action and its participants. ↓ 5

The Category of Case The category of case is closely related to the verb The Category of Case The category of case is closely related to the verb valency by which the verb predetermines the number and the character of other parts of the sentence and first and foremost the semantic role of the nouns that accompany the verb in the sentence. 5

The Category of Case is defined as a grammatical category which marks the semantic The Category of Case is defined as a grammatical category which marks the semantic role of the noun in the sentence and finds a grammatical expression in the language. 5

The Category of Case In synthetic languages the case presents a morphological category of The Category of Case In synthetic languages the case presents a morphological category of the nouns. It is manifested in the forms of the nominal declension. 5

The Category of Case In analytical languages case relations are mainly expressed syntactically (by The Category of Case In analytical languages case relations are mainly expressed syntactically (by the position of the noun in the sentence, by prepositions) E. g. Give this book / to him. 5

The Category of Case In modern English the category of case embraces the relations The Category of Case In modern English the category of case embraces the relations only on the level of the phrase (between two nouns), but not on the level of the whole sentence as in many other languages; 5

The Category of Case In modern English the morphological expression of case is limited The Category of Case In modern English the morphological expression of case is limited to the system of two cases. 5

The Category of Case But there is no universal point of view as to The Category of Case But there is no universal point of view as to the case system in English. 5

The Category of Case 1. The limited case theory (formulated by H. Sweet, O. The Category of Case 1. The limited case theory (formulated by H. Sweet, O. Jespersen and radically developed by the Soviet scholars Prof. Smirnitsky, Prof. Barkhudarov and others) There are two cases: The Common Case ("non-genitive") : : The Genitive Case 5

The Category of Case 2. Positional case theory There are 5 cases: 1 inflectional The Category of Case 2. Positional case theory There are 5 cases: 1 inflectional Genitive case 4 non inflectional, purely positional: a) Nominative case (subject to a verb) Rain falls. b) Vocative case (address) Are you coming, my friend? 5

The Category of Case c) Dative case (indirect object to a verb) I gave The Category of Case c) Dative case (indirect object to a verb) I gave John a penny. d) Accusative case (direct object, and also object to a preposition): The man killed a rat. The earth is moistened by rain. 5

The Category of Case But it mixes up the functional (syntactic) characteristics of the The Category of Case But it mixes up the functional (syntactic) characteristics of the sentence parts (that are expressed in language by word order) and the morphological features of the noun. 5

The Category of Case 3. The theory of prepositional cases / the prepositional theory The Category of Case 3. The theory of prepositional cases / the prepositional theory There are several cases. They are determined by certain prepositions. 5

The Category of Case E. g. : Dative case (to + Noun, for + The Category of Case E. g. : Dative case (to + Noun, for + Noun) Genitive case (of + Noun). Such prepositions are regarded as grammatical elements equivalent to case forms. 5

The Category of Case But: Any preposition expresses a grammatical relation to nouns. So, The Category of Case But: Any preposition expresses a grammatical relation to nouns. So, all prepositional phrases in English must be regarded as "analytical cases". Then the total number of the cases will exceed a dozen at least. 5

The Category of Case 4. Charles Fillmore’s Case Grammar gives syntactic semantic classification of The Category of Case 4. Charles Fillmore’s Case Grammar gives syntactic semantic classification of cases. Cases show a set of relationships involving verbs and nouns as verbs may stand to different relations to nouns. 5

The Category of Case There are 6 cases : a) Agentive Case: John opened The Category of Case There are 6 cases : a) Agentive Case: John opened the door (the animate doer performs an action or state); b) Instrumental case: The key opened the door (the force or object performs the action or state); c) Dative Case: John believed that he would win (the animate is affected by the state or action); 5

The Category of Case d) Factitive Case: The key was damaged (the object is The Category of Case d) Factitive Case: The key was damaged (the object is resulted from the action or state, or understood as a part of the verb meaning); e) Locative Case: Chicago is windy (the case which identifies the location or spatial orientation of the state or action); f) Objective case: The sun rises in the East (the case is limited to things which are affected by the action or state). 5

The Category of Case 5. There are three cases: the Nominative, the Genitive, the The Category of Case 5. There are three cases: the Nominative, the Genitive, the Objective (due to the existence of objective pronouns me, him, whom, etc. ). 5

The Category of Case The conclusion: the English noun has the category of case. The Category of Case The conclusion: the English noun has the category of case. 5

The Category of Case The The Category of Case The "theory of the possessive postposition" ("postpositional theory“) by G. N. Vorontsova is quite a different view on the case category. ↓ ↓ 5

What could be this point of view? What could be this point of view?

The Category of Case There are no cases at all: the English noun has The Category of Case There are no cases at all: the English noun has completely lost the category of case in the course of its historical development. ↓ 5

The Category of Case Genitive Case is a combination of a noun with a The Category of Case Genitive Case is a combination of a noun with a particle. The form ‘s is optional because the same relations may be expressed by the “of phrase”: the doctor’s arrival — the arrival of the doctor. 5

The Category of Case But there is the opposition (–‘s form and the unmarked The Category of Case But there is the opposition (–‘s form and the unmarked form); according to the statistics the 's sign is attached to nouns in 96 % of cases; 5

The Category of Case the 's sign differs from ordinary functional words: a) it The Category of Case the 's sign differs from ordinary functional words: a) it is morpheme like by its phonetic properties; b) it is strictly postpositional unlike the prepositions; 5

The Category of Case c) it is semantically a more bound element than a The Category of Case c) it is semantically a more bound element than a preposition, d) it is not entered into dictionaries as a separate word. 5

The Category of Case The solution of the problem integrates the positive statements of The Category of Case The solution of the problem integrates the positive statements of the two theories: the limited case theory; the possessive postposition theory. 5

The Category of Case 1 The English noun has two cases: common case as The Category of Case 1 The English noun has two cases: common case as a "direct" case genitive case as the only oblique case. ↓ 5

The Category of Case The case category of the English noun expresses the relation The Category of Case The case category of the English noun expresses the relation of possession or belonging. It is realized through the binary privative opposition: the Common Case: : the Genitive (Possessive) Case (sister: : sisters). 5

The Category of Case The formal marker of the Possessive case is the morpheme The Category of Case The formal marker of the Possessive case is the morpheme ‘s. The origin: -‘s is a remnant of the OE Genitive case or -‘s is the result of the contraction of the phrase the King his head —* the king's head. 5

The Category of Case -‘s can be joined to: nouns proper; phrases (somebody else's The Category of Case -‘s can be joined to: nouns proper; phrases (somebody else's problems, the British Ambassador in Russia's arrival); sentences (I forgot the woman I danced with yesterday's name (J. Salinger)). 5

? Is -'s a grammatical morpheme? Is -'s a kind of postpositive element? Do ? Is -'s a grammatical morpheme? Is -'s a kind of postpositive element? Do words and phrases with -'s belong to the domain of syntax or morphology? 5

The Category of Case 2 The case system in English is based on a The Category of Case 2 The case system in English is based on a particle expression ( ’s can be added to nouns and word groups). ↓ 5

The Category of Case 2 subtypes of the English genitive expression: the word genitive; The Category of Case 2 subtypes of the English genitive expression: the word genitive; the phrase genitive. Both of them are not inflexional, but particle case forms. 5

The Category of Case 3 As the case opposition does not work with all The Category of Case 3 As the case opposition does not work with all nouns, from the functional point of view the Genitive Case is to be regarded as subsidiary to the syntactic system of prepositional phrases. 5

The Category of Case The conclusion: The inflexional case of nouns in English has The Category of Case The conclusion: The inflexional case of nouns in English has ceased to exist. In its place a new, peculiar two case system has developed. It is based on the particle expression of the genitive falling into two segmental types: the word genitive and the phrase genitive. 5

The Category of Case The scope of meanings rendered by the Genitive Case Classification The Category of Case The scope of meanings rendered by the Genitive Case Classification 1 Possessive Genitive: Mary’s father → Mary has a father Subjective Genitive: the doctor’s arrival → The doctor has arrived 5

The Category of Case Objective Genitive: the man’s release → The man was released The Category of Case Objective Genitive: the man’s release → The man was released Adverbial Genitive: two hour’s work → X worked for two hours Equation Genitive: a mile’s distance → the distance is a mile Genitive of destination: children’s books → books for children 5

The Category of Case Mixed Group: yesterday’s paper → Nick’s school → John’s word The Category of Case Mixed Group: yesterday’s paper → Nick’s school → John’s word → cannot be reduced to one nucleus. 5

The Category of Case Classification 2 1. pure possessivity (my sister's money); 2. agent, The Category of Case Classification 2 1. pure possessivity (my sister's money); 2. agent, or subject of the action (my brother's arrival); 3. object of the action (the criminal's arrest); 4. authorship (Shakespeare's sonnets); 5. destination (a sailor's uniform); 5

The Category of Case 6. measure (a day's wait); 7. location (at the dean's); The Category of Case 6. measure (a day's wait); 7. location (at the dean's); 8. description, or comparison (a lion 's courage). 5

The Category of Case !!! In linguistics the term “genitive case” is used instead The Category of Case !!! In linguistics the term “genitive case” is used instead of the “possessive case” because the meanings rendered by the -’s sign are not only those of possession. These meanings are results of the interaction between the semantics of the noun in the Possessive case and the semantics of the head noun. 5

The Category of Case The use of the Possessive case in present-day English increasing The Category of Case The use of the Possessive case in present-day English increasing at the expense of the of phrase; not restricted to nouns denoting animate objects (E. g. the tree's branches, the novel's main character, the New Year's day, etc). 5

4. The Problem of Gender in English 5 4. The Problem of Gender in English 5

The Problem of Gender in English Gender plays a relatively minor part in the The Problem of Gender in English Gender plays a relatively minor part in the grammar of English: there is no gender concord, the reference of the pronouns he, she, it depends upon the classification of persons and objects as male, female or inanimate. 5

The Problem of Gender in English The problem of gender in English is being The Problem of Gender in English The problem of gender in English is being vigorously disputed. 1. The majority of linguists consider that nouns have no grammatical category of gender in Modern English. They stress its purely semantic character. 5

The Problem of Gender in English Note: The actual gender distinctions of nouns are The Problem of Gender in English Note: The actual gender distinctions of nouns are not denied by anyone. The character of the gender classification is taken into account: it is purely semantic (no gender category); it is semantico grammatical (gender category exists). 5

The Problem of Gender in English Prof. Ilyish: not a single word in Modern The Problem of Gender in English Prof. Ilyish: not a single word in Modern English shows any gender peculiarities in its morphology. The gender difference is purely lexical both in: husband wife actor and actress 5

The Problem of Gender in English Frank Palmer: the grammatical category of gender was The Problem of Gender in English Frank Palmer: the grammatical category of gender was recognized in the English language on the basis of Latin. Sex relationship endings (esp. ess: tiger, tigress; duke, duchess) represent a biological category of sex, but not gender as they are not involved in syntax. 5

The Problem of Gender in English R. L. Trask: grammatical gender need have nothing The Problem of Gender in English R. L. Trask: grammatical gender need have nothing to do with sex. The word comes from the Latin genus, meaning “kind”. In the so called gender languages (Ukrainian, Russian, French, German, etc) there is a noticeable correlation between sex and gender assignment, but however, most nouns denote things that have no sex, and yet they must still be assigned to gender. 5

The Problem of Gender in English 2) Other scholars (M. Blokh, J. Lyons) admit The Problem of Gender in English 2) Other scholars (M. Blokh, J. Lyons) admit the existence of the category of gender. In fact, the category of gender in English is expressed with the help of the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person. Due to them English gender distinctions display their grammatical nature. 5

The Problem of Gender in English Prof. Blokh: The category of gender is strictly The Problem of Gender in English Prof. Blokh: The category of gender is strictly oppositional. It is formed by two oppositions (the upper (general) opposition which functions in the whole set of nouns and the lower (partial) opposition which functions in the subset of person nouns only. 5

The Problem of Gender in English person (human) nouns, denoting animate things (+) : The Problem of Gender in English person (human) nouns, denoting animate things (+) : : non-person (non-human) nouns ↓ masculine nouns feminine nouns (+) 5

The Problem of Gender in English A specific system of three genders in English: The Problem of Gender in English A specific system of three genders in English: the neuter (i. e. non person) gender, the masculine (i. e. masculine person) gender, the feminine (i. e. feminine person) gender. 5

The Problem of Gender in English Alongside of the grammatical (or lexico grammatical) gender The Problem of Gender in English Alongside of the grammatical (or lexico grammatical) gender distinctions, English nouns can show the sex of their referents: lexically (e. g. : bull-calf - cow-calf, cock-sparrow hen-sparrow, he-bear - she-bear, a Tom-cat - a Tabbycat, a landlord - a landlady, a boyfriend - a girl-friend, etc. ); grammatically (e. g. : lion - lioness, a waiter - a waitress, a steward - a stewardess, a bachelor - a bachelorette, a widow - a widower). 5

The Problem of Gender in English The category of gender can be easily neutralized The Problem of Gender in English The category of gender can be easily neutralized (with the group of "common gender" nouns) transponized (the process of "personification"). 5

The Problem of Gender in English Neutralization The class of ‘common gender‘ nouns (person, The Problem of Gender in English Neutralization The class of ‘common gender‘ nouns (person, cousin, parent, president, prime minister, friend, cousin, doctor, president, etc. ) can express both genders. 5

The Problem of Gender in English When there is no special need to indicate The Problem of Gender in English When there is no special need to indicate the sex of the person referents of these nouns, they are used neutrally as masculine. 5

The Problem of Gender in English In the plural all the gender distinctions are The Problem of Gender in English In the plural all the gender distinctions are neutralized. 5

The Problem of Gender in English Transposition A grammatical personifying transposition is very typical The Problem of Gender in English Transposition A grammatical personifying transposition is very typical of English. It affects: animate nouns, a wide range of inanimate nouns (due to cultural historical traditions). 5

The Problem of Gender in English E. g. : reference of she with the The Problem of Gender in English E. g. : reference of she with the names of countries, vehicles, weaker animals, etc. ; reference of he with the names of stronger animals, the names of phenomena suggesting crude strength and fierceness, etc. 5

The Problem of Gender in English *the Sun is masculine, according to Helios, the The Problem of Gender in English *the Sun is masculine, according to Helios, the sun god *the Moon is feminine, according to Selene, the goddess of the moon. 5

The Problem of Gender in English Transposition can be caused by: individual perception (E. The Problem of Gender in English Transposition can be caused by: individual perception (E. g. : women drivers treat cars as masculine) individual fantasy (E. g. : Every snowflake thinks he is not responsible for the snowstorm (M. Garner)). 5

The Problem of Gender in English The conclusion: Gender division of nouns in English The Problem of Gender in English The conclusion: Gender division of nouns in English really exists. It is not purely grammatical, but lexico-grammatical as it finds both a lexical (special suffixes and lexemes) and a grammatical expression in the language (replacing nouns by personal pronouns). 5

The Problem of Gender in English The category of gender in English is inherently The Problem of Gender in English The category of gender in English is inherently semantic, i. e. meaningful in so far as it reflects the actual features of the named objects. So, English nouns do not change in gender, but belong to one of the genders. 5

The Problem of Gender in English Difference between the English and Russian gender The The Problem of Gender in English Difference between the English and Russian gender The Russian category of gender divides the nouns into the inanimate set having no meaningful gender, and the animate set having a meaningful gender. But the English category of gender is only meaningful and represented in the nounal system as a whole. 5

The Problem of Gender in English The English gender has a semantic character (oppositionally, The Problem of Gender in English The English gender has a semantic character (oppositionally, i. e. grammatically expressed), the Russian gender is partially semantic (animate nouns have semantic gender distinctions) and partially formal (There are such cases as стакан (он), тарелка (она)). 5