The basics of the English language (lexicology) Сандалова

The basics of the English language (lexicology) Сандалова Н.В к.ф.н., ст. преп. каф. английской филологии и сопоставительного языкознания, УрГПУ [email protected]

Lecture 9-10 – Etymology and borrowings Plan: Etymology Native words Borrowed words Assimilation of borrowings Sources and classification of borrowings Etymological doublets and International words

Etymology Отрасль лингвистики, изучающая исторические отношения между словом и более ранними формами или формой, от которых (которой) слово гипотетически произошло.

Etymology of the English Word-stock Etymology (Gr. etymon “truth” + Gr. logos “learning”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin (происхождение) and history of words (историю слов), tracing them to their earliest determinable source (предпринимая попытки отследить их до самого раннего определяемого источника).

More than two thirds (Более 2/3) of the English vocabulary are borrowings (заимствования). Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms. English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings.

The Origins of English Words

Definitions A native word (исконное слово) is a word which belongs to the original English word stock (оригинальному, самому древнему пласту) , as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period (древне английский период). A borrowed word (a borrowing, or a loan word, заимствование) is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language (полностью или частично модифицированное по стандартам АЯ).

Исконные слова (индоевропейские): kinship terms (термины родства): mother, father, son, daughter, brother; important objects and phenomena of nature (самые важные природные объекты): sun, moon, wind, water, stone, hill; animals and plants (некоторые растения и животные): goose, wolf, cow, tree, corn; parts of human body (части тела): ear, tooth, eye, foot, heart, lip;

5. concrete physical properties and qualities (основные прилагательные): hard, quick, slow, red, white, new; 6. numerals from 1 to a 100 (числительные от 1 до 100): one, two, twenty, eighty; 7. pronouns (personal, demonstrative, interrogative (местоимения)): I, you, he, my, that, who; 8. some of the most frequent words (наиболее частотные слова): bear, do, be, sit, stand.

Words of the common Germanic origin (слова общегерманские) These words have parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic (немецкий, норвежский, голландский, исландский). They contain a great number of semantic groups of which are the same as in the Indo-European group of native words (к ним относятся некоторые схожие категории с индоевропейскими словами):

parts of the human body (части тела): head, arm, finger; periods of time (времена года): summer, winter, time, week; natural phenomena (природные феномены): storm, rain, flood, ice, ground, sea, earth; artefacts and materials (артефакты и материалы): bridge, house, shop, room, coal, iron, lead, cloth; different kinds of garment (одежда): hat, shirt, shoe;

abstract notions (абстрактные понятия): care, evil, hope, life, need; animals, birds and plants (растения и животные): sheep, horse, fox, crow, oak, grass; various notional verbs (глаголы): bake, burn, drive, buy, hear, keep, learn, make, rise; adjectives of colour, size, etc (прилагательные): broad, dead, deaf, deep, grey, blue; adverbs (наречия): down, out, before.

Характеристики исконных слов Высокая степень сочетаемости, частотность использования; Развитая семантика, полисемия; Высокий словообразовательный потенциал; Способность участвовать в создании идиом.

Исторические причины заимствований Римское завоевание (1st c. B.C.), Введение Христианства (7th c. A.D.), Набеги датчан (11th – 13th c. A.D.), Норманнское завоевание (1066 A.D.), Эпоха Возрождения (14th – 16th c. A.D.), Прямые языковые контакты и политические культурные и т.д. отношения между разными странами (современный период)

The Etymology of Borrowed Words Celtic (Кельтские): 5th – 6th A. D. Latin (Латинские): 1st layer: 1st c. B. C. (Римское завоевание) 2nd layer: 7th c. A. D. (the introduction of Christianity (Христианство)) 3rd layer: 14th – 16th c. (the Renaissance period (Возрождение)) Scandinavian (скандинавские): 8th – 11th c. A. D.

The Etymology of Borrowed Words French (Французские): Norman borrowings: 11th – 13th A. D. Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period Greek: the Renaissance period Italian: the Renaissance period and later Spanish: the Renaissance period and later Russian: the Renaissance period and later German, Indian and other languages

a number of Scandinavian borrowings were felt as derived from native words (they were of the same root and the connection between them was easily seen), for example, drop (AS.) – drip (Scand.), true (AS.)-tryst (Scand.). Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call (v), take (v), cast (v), die (v), law (n), husband (n), window (n), ill (adj), loose (adj), low (adj), weak (adj).

Some of the words of this group are easily recognisable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk- combination: sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt etc.

Пути заимствования Borrowings enter the language in 2 ways: through oral speech – через устную речь (by immediate contact between the peoples). They took place in the early periods (ранние) of history. They are usually short (краткие) and undergo considerable changes in the act of adoption (наиболее подвержены ассимиляции и часто неотличимы от исконных слов, не ощущаются как чужеродные).

Borrowings enter the language in 2 ways: through written speech – через письменную речь (by indirect contact through books, etc.). They gained importance in recent times (более современные). They preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their sound-form (часто сохраняют изначальное написание, звучание), their assimilation is long and laborious process (долго и незначительно ассимилируются).

Классификация заимствований Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria: a) according to the aspect which is borrowed (аспект заимствования); b) according to the degree of assimilation (степень ассимиляции); c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed (язык заимствования).

Первый критерий – аспект заимствования There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings (loan words proper) (фонетические), translation loans (переводные кальки), semantic borrowings (семантические заимствования), word coins (производные), morphemic borrowings (заимствование морфем).

Phonetic borrowings Самые частотные во всех языках мира, называются loan words proper (идеальные заимствования). Слова заимствуются с их написанием, произношением, значением, проходят процесс ассимиляции, каждый звук изначального языка заменяется на соответствующий звук языка-реципиента) Иногда написание полностью меняется, может меняться также и семантическая структура

Phonetic borrowings The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language (перенос ударения по правилам языка-реципиента). The paradigm of the word, sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed (грамматика может меняться). labour, travel, table, chair, people (French); nomenklatura, sputnik (Russian); bank, soprano (Italian).

Translation borrowings (калька) Words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language (формируются из существующих слов) according to patterns taken from another language (по моделям другого языка), by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme or word-for-word translation (пословный или поморфемный перевод, mother tongue

Semantic borrowing (семантическое заимствование) It is understood as the development in an English word (развитие в английском слове нового значения) of a new meaning under the influence of a related word in another language (под влиянием сходного слова другого языка) e.g. the English word pioneer means ‘explorer’ and ‘one who is among the first in new fields of activity’. Under influence of the Russian word пионер it has come to mean ‘a member of the Young Pioneers’ Organization’.

Other types of borrowings word coins (производные) from Latin and Greek – are formed to denote new notions or inventions using Latin or Greek words (telephone) morphemic borrowings – first a number of words with the morpheme is taken from another language, then the morpheme begins to form new words (-able- Latin; -ment- French; -ism- Greek).

Assimilation of borrowings denotes a partial or total confrontation (частичное или полное влияние) to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the English language and its semantic system.

The degree of assimilation (степень ассимиляции) of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed (if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier) – принадлежность одной группе = более быстрая ассимиляция; b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form (words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker) – заимствованные устно = более быстрая ассимиляция;

The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: c) how often the borrowing is used in the language (the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated) – частота использования в языке = более быстрая ассимиляция; d) how long the word lives in the language (the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is) – длительное существование слова в языке = более быстрая ассимиляция.

Degree of Assimilation Completely assimilated words (полностью) E.g.: wine, window, chair. 2) Partially assimilated words (частично) a. Loan words not assimilated semantically E.g.: sari, toreador. b. Loan words not assimilated grammatically E.g.: formula, index, phenomenon. c. Loan words not assimilated phonetically or graphically. E.g.: ballet, buffet, café. Unassimilated (не ассимилированные) E.g. haute couture. The words from other languages for which there are corresponding English equivalents are so-called barbarisms. E.g.: ciao.

Completely assimilated borrowed words (полностью) They follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards (соответствуют стандарту языка-реципиента). They take part in word-formation (участвуют в словообразовании). Their morphological structure and motivation is transparent (мотивированны). They are found in all layers of older borrowings: cheese (L.), husband (Sc.), animal (L.)

Completely (полностью ассимилированные) assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language (не ощущаются чужеродными). Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs: correct – corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion: gate – gates. In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the first one: capital, service.

2) Partially (частично) assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into: borrowings not completely assimilated graphically (не полностью ассимилированные в графике). These are words from French, in which the final consonant is not read: ballet, buffet; with a diacritic mark: café, cliché; diagraphs ch, qu, ou, etc.: bouquet, banquet.

2) Partially (частично) assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into: borrowings not completely assimilated phonetically (не полностью ассимилированные в фонетике). e.g. from French with the stress on the final syllable: machine, cartoon, police, bourgeois, prestige, regime.

2) Partially (частично) assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into: borrowings not completely assimilated grammatically (не полностью ассимилированные в грамматике). e.g., nouns from Latin and Greek keep their original plural forms: phenomenon – phenomena; criterion – criteria.

2) Partially assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into: borrowings not completely assimilated semantically because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come, e.g. sari, sombrero, rickshaw (Ch), sherbet (Arab), etc.

3) Unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms (не ассимилированные = варваризмы) are words from other languages used by English people, e.g. ciao – ‘good-bye’ or tête-à-tête.

Classification of Borrowings according to the language from which they were Borrowed Romanic (Latin, Greek), French, Italian, Spanish, Scandinavian, German, Dutch, Russian

Major Influences Celtic - the number of celticisms in English is small. Scandinavian - the years 750 - 1050 are known as The Viking Age of England. Their influence upon the language was strong. Norman and French - the Norman period lasted nearly 300 years. Latin and Greek The first period of Latin influence was during the Roman occupation. The second wave of the influence came with the christianization. The third wave dated to the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries - the period of New Learning, when Greek and Latin were established as the main languages of learning, science, and culture.

Minor Influences Dutch The contact with the Dutch language was mediated by the political, commercial, and cultural contacts; thus the main spheres were maritime terminology (dock, gin, commodore, etc.), and terminology of drawing and painting (sketch, landscape). Italian Main spheres are business (bank, risk, bankrupt, etc.), music, and architecture. Others Spanish, German, Russian, Czech, Indian, Japanese, Red Indian, etc.

Early Influences Celtic borrowings: A few Celtic words, such as crag, entered what would become the English language. Latin loans: Roman soldiers and priests came to the British Isles before the massive invasions of Northern Europeans.

Celtic borrowings Place names: Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux (Celtic “river”, “water”); London (Llyn “river”+ dun “a fortified hill”) - “a fortress on the hill over the river” cradle, cross, iron, flannel, tweed, lake (C. loch)

Latin borrowings Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc.

Latin borrowings Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the Runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem.

Latin borrowings Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc.

Latin borrowings Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well. Mostly they are words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes. In medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography).

The earliest Latin borrowings (1st c. A.D.) words denoting things connected with war, trade, building and domestic life: pound, inch, cup, kitchen, pepper, butter, cheese, milk, wine, cherry

Latin words borrowed into English through the Christianization of England (7th c. A.D.) persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals: priest, bishop, monk, nun, candle, temple words connected with learning: grammar, school, scholar, decline, master, magister

Latin borrowings of the Renaissance period (14th – 16th c. A.D.) abstract words: major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create.

Scandinavian borrowings By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and their languages had much in common (много общего). As the result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English.

Scandinavian borrowings Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens very seldom, such as: same, both, till, fro, though, pronominal forms with «th»: they, them, their. Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs, which did not exist in Old English (фразовые глаголы). Phrasal verbs (фразовые глаголы) are now highly productive in English /take off, give in etc/.

Scandinavian borrowings (8th - 11th c. A.D.) Verbs: call, take, cast, die, want Nouns: law, egg, husband (Sc. hūs + bōndi “inhabitant of the house”), window (Sc. vindauga “the eye of the wind”) Adjectives: ill, loose, low, weak Pronouns and pronominal forms: they, their, them, same, both, though.

Scandinavian borrowings (place names) Derby, Tremsby (-by: Sc. “village, town”); Zinthorp, Altharp (-thorp: Sc. “village”); Eastoft, Nortoft (-toft: Sc. “a plot of land covered with grass”); Troutbeck (-beck: Sc. “brook”); Inverness (-ness: Sc. “cape”); Applethwait, Crossthwait (-thwait: Sc. “forest glade”)

Scandinavian borrowings However there were also many words in the two languages which were different, and some of them were borrowed into English, such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window etc, such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong, such verbs as : call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others.

Norman influence The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came into English during the Norman Conquest (норманнское завоевание). French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also it’s spelling, because French scribes wrote documents as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French (влияние на правописание).

The French Language in England 1066-1200 Norman French is the native language of the nobility (французский – язык аристократии, верхушки государства). Probably not a great deal of bilingualism (малая степень билингвизма). Small numbers of French loans enter English (небольшое количество заимствований).

French is the cultivated, prestige language (престижный язык). There is a diglossic situation, with French the high-prestige, English the low-prestige variety (диглоссия, французский престижный, английский – нет). Large numbers of French loans enter English (большое количество заимствований) The French Language in England 1200-1300

English becomes the dominant language, but French remains dominant in literature and at the court (английский начинает доминировать). Although the knowledge of French is waning, its linguistic prestige can be seen by still increasing numbers of French loans in English (заимствования продолжаются). The French Language in England 1300-1400

1334-1453 The Hundred Years' War with France (война с Францией). 1348-9 The Black Death. 30% mortality. Labour shortage, wage rises, increasing importance of the English-speaking classes (эпидемия чумы = необходимость в трудовом населении (англоязычные)) 1386 English accepted in the courts ('Statute of Pleading') – признание английского в суде The French Language in England 1300-1400 Factors contributing to the decline of French (почему французский уступил):

Two major English poets at the end of the 14th century: Gower writes mostly in French (but composes one long work Confessio amantis, in English) Chaucer writes almost entirely in English. Evidence of private letters: 1350: French is the rule. After 1400: English becomes common. After 1450: English is the rule. Расцвет англоязычной культуры и поэзии The French Language in England 1300-1400 Factors contributing to the decline of French (почему французский уступил):

Norman influence «v» was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of «f» in the intervocal position /lufian - love/, the digraph «ch» was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter «c» / chest/ before front vowels where it had been palatalized, the digraph «sh» was introduced instead of the combination «sc» to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/,

Norman influence the digraph «th» was introduced instead of the Runic letter «ð» /this, thing/, the letter «y» was introduced instead of the Runic letter «3» to denote the sound /j/ /yet/, the digraph «qu» substituted the combination «cw» to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/,

Norman influence the digraph «ou» was introduced to denote the sound /u:/ /house/ (The sound /u:/ was later on diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and fully assimilated borrowings). As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter «u» before «v», «m», «n» and the digraph «th» by the letter «o» to escape the combination of many vertical lines /«sunu» - «son», luvu» - «love»/.

Norman borrowings (11th – 13th c. A.D.) Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil Artistic and literary terms: image, character, figure, volume, design Terms of everyday life: chair, table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, breakfast

Norman borrowings (11th – 13th c. A.D.) Government and administration: state, country, government, parliament, prince, baron Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison, jury Religious terms: saint, sermon (проповедь), prayer, parish (приход), chapel Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy

English-French Pairs Sheep-mutton Calf-veal Deer-venison Pig-pork Begin-commence Child-infant Doom-judgment Freedom-liberty Happiness-felicity Hearty-cordial Help-aid Hide-conceal Holy-saintly Meal-repast Stench-aroma Wish-desire