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>The Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment

>Overview  “Enlightenment” included a rejection of traditional Christianity Religious wars and intolerance of Overview “Enlightenment” included a rejection of traditional Christianity Religious wars and intolerance of 16th and 17th centuries alienated intellectuals Intellectuals and scientists of the 17th century were open to new ideas of science. Both saw science as praising God The 18th century intellectuals saw it differently Rejected Christian orthodoxy and secularism emerged as dominant mentality in Western mentality ever since

>Overview  Reason and materialism were beginning to replace faith and reason Although, there Overview Reason and materialism were beginning to replace faith and reason Although, there was an outburst of religious sensibility manifested in art and music Not all artistic and intellectual hearts were captured by secularism German philosopher Emmanuel Kant defined Enlightenment as “man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity” Kant: “Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence.” As laws were discovered regulating nature, then laws could be found to regulate human society Keywords: reason, natural law, hope, progress

>The Paths to Enlightenment Spread of scientific information was not direct from scientist to The Paths to Enlightenment Spread of scientific information was not direct from scientist to people. Books were tough to read—written by the best brains of the time—and tough to get (no Borders) Much was done through education by “popularizers” or philosophes themselves The link to the people of the scientific discoveries the philosophes

>The Popularization of Science Bernard de Fontenelle, Secretary of the French Royal Academy from The Popularization of Science Bernard de Fontenelle, Secretary of the French Royal Academy from 1691 to 1741, wrote books on discoveries Fontenelle possessed vast knowledge of discoveries Bernard de Fontenelle, Secretary of the French Royal Academy from 1691 to 1741, wrote books on discoveries Fontenelle possessed vast knowledge of discoveries

>The Popularization of Science Fontanels showed that science need not be the monopoly of The Popularization of Science Fontanels showed that science need not be the monopoly of experts, but part of literature He downplayed the religious side of scientists He was a “skeptic” about religion and portrayed churches as enemies of scientific progress

>A New Skepticism As scientific discoveries spread, more men and women questioned long-held religious A New Skepticism As scientific discoveries spread, more men and women questioned long-held religious truths and values Skepticism and secularism was evident in the works of Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) Attacked religious intolerance, superstition, and dogmatism Compelling people to believe a certain set of religious ideas was wrong—as Louis XIV was doing at that time Bayle believed that individual conscious should determine one’s action the existence of many religions would benefit rather than harm a state the Bible should not be exempt from criticism

>A New Skepticism In Bayle’s most famous work, Historical and Critical Dictionary, he wrote A New Skepticism In Bayle’s most famous work, Historical and Critical Dictionary, he wrote of King David in a very different way David was portrayed as a sensual, cruel, treacherous, and evil man The “Dictionary” attacked traditional religious practices and heroes One critic of Dictionary called it the “Bible of the eighteenth century” Skepticism about religion and European culture was nourished by travel reports Traders, missionaries, medical practitioner, and explorers—all wrote travel books Geographical discoveries, e.g. Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia by James Cook Aroused much enthusiasm

>The Legacy of Newton The intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment were Locke and Newton The Legacy of Newton The intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment were Locke and Newton Intellectuals believed that by following Newton’s laws of reasoning, they could discover the natural laws that governed politics, economics, justice, religion, and art

>The Legacy of Newton Newton frequently singled out “the greatest and rarest genius that The Legacy of Newton Newton frequently singled out “the greatest and rarest genius that ever rose for the ornament and instruction of the species” “God said, ‘Let Newton be, and all is light’” Philosophes enchanted by Newton’s world machine

>François-Marie Arouet (21 November 1694 – 30 May 1778), better known by the pen François-Marie Arouet (21 November 1694 – 30 May 1778), better known by the pen name Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment writer, essayist, and philosopher known for his wit, philosophical sport, and defense of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and free trade.

>Voltaire and the Enlightenment  Very impressed with England His “Philosophic Letters on the Voltaire and the Enlightenment Very impressed with England His “Philosophic Letters on the English” (1733) Expressed deep admiration for English Liked freedom of press, political freedom, and religious toleration….”there are thirty religions and they live together peacefully and happily Indirectly, he criticized France, especially absolute royalty, lack of religious toleration, and freedom of thought

>Voltaire and the Enlightenment  Used prestige and skills as a polemicist to fight Voltaire and the Enlightenment Used prestige and skills as a polemicist to fight cases of intolerance in France Most famous case: Jean Calas Accused of murdering his son to stop him from becoming Catholic Tortured to confess, he soon died Voltaire, through his writings, forced a retrial in which Calas was absolved. His son had committed suicide

>Voltaire and the Enlightenment  Calas’ family paid an indemnity and Voltaire’s appeals for Voltaire and the Enlightenment Calas’ family paid an indemnity and Voltaire’s appeals for moderation seemed more reasonable He wrote, “Treatise of Toleration” Reminded people that religious toleration had created no problems for England or Holland Reminded governments “all men are brothers under God” Voltaire, “Crush the infamous thing.” Religious intolerance, fanaticism, and superstition

>Voltaire and the Enlightenment  Accepted Deism (учение, которое признает существование Бога только в Voltaire and the Enlightenment Accepted Deism (учение, которое признает существование Бога только в качестве первопричины мира; согласно деизму, Бог лишь создал Вселенную, а затем не вмешивается в происходящие в ней процессы) Accepted by most philosophes Built on the Newtonian world machine theory The mechanic—God—created the universe God had no direct involvement in the world and let it run according to its own natural laws God did not extend grace nor answer prayers Jesus might be a “good fellow,” as Voltaire called Him but he was not divine as Christianity claimed

>Voltaire and the Enlightenment  Voltaire said, “In the opinion that there is a Voltaire and the Enlightenment Voltaire said, “In the opinion that there is a God, there are difficulties, but in the contrary opinion there are absurdities.”

>Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu ( January 18, 1689 Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu ( January 18, 1689 in Bordeaux – February 10, 1755), was a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Era of the Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He was largely responsible for the popularization of the terms feudalism and Byzantine Empire.

>Montesquieu and Political Thought Charles de Secondat, the Baron de Montesquieu From French nobility Montesquieu and Political Thought Charles de Secondat, the Baron de Montesquieu From French nobility Received a classical education then studied law His first book, “Persian Letters” Two Persians traveling in Paris and criticizing French institutions, especially Catholic Church and French monarchy Much of French Enlightenment: attack on traditional religion, advocating religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason to liberate humans beings

>Montesquieu and Political Thought Montesquieu’s most famous work, “The Spirit of the Laws” Published Montesquieu and Political Thought Montesquieu’s most famous work, “The Spirit of the Laws” Published in 1748 Comparative study of governments in which he attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the “natural laws” governing the social relationships of human beings

>Montesquieu and Political Thought  “The Spirit of the Laws” distinguished three basic kinds Montesquieu and Political Thought “The Spirit of the Laws” distinguished three basic kinds of governments Republics, suitable for small states and based on citizen involvement Monarchy, appropriate for the middle-size states and grounded in the ruling class’s adherence to law Despotism, apt for large empires and dependent on fear to inspire obedience

>Montesquieu and Political Thought Praised England’s constitution which led to his most lasting contribution Montesquieu and Political Thought Praised England’s constitution which led to his most lasting contribution to political thought, the importance of checks and balances created through the “separation of Powers” England had separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers Limited control of each other Served as greatest freedom and security for a state He wanted the nobility of France to play and active role in the running of the French government

>Montesquieu and Political Thought Translation of Montesquieu’s work ensured it was read by American Montesquieu and Political Thought Translation of Montesquieu’s work ensured it was read by American philosophes who incorporated much into the U.S. Constitution Benjamin Franklin James Madison John Adams Alexander Hamilton Thomas Jefferson

>Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher and Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher and writer. He was a prominent figure during the Enlightenment, his major contribution to the Enlightenment being the Encyclopédie

>Diderot and the Encyclopedia The purpose of the encyclopedia was to “change the general Diderot and the Encyclopedia The purpose of the encyclopedia was to “change the general way of thinking” Became a weapon against the old French society Attacked religious superstition and promoted toleration Sought social, legal, and political improvements Sought more cosmopolitan, tolerant, humane, and reasonable society Ideas of the Enlightenment spread even further

>Rousseau and the Social Contract Jean-Jacques Rousseau, born in Geneva As youth, wandered France Rousseau and the Social Contract Jean-Jacques Rousseau, born in Geneva As youth, wandered France and Italy doing jobs Later, studied classics and music A paid lover of an older woman Eventually made his way to Paris Introduced to philosophes in Paris

>Rousseau and the Social Contract  Rousseau’s political beliefs in two major works, Discourse Rousseau and the Social Contract Rousseau’s political beliefs in two major works, Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind and The Social Contract

>Rousseau and the Social Contract Humans were happy in their primitive state—no laws, judges, Rousseau and the Social Contract Humans were happy in their primitive state—no laws, judges, equality--but then they made changes To preserve private property, people adopted laws and governments “…rushed headlong not to liberty but into chains” Government is an evil, but a necessary one

>Rousseau and the Social Contract  He wrote, The Social Contract Tried to harmonize Rousseau and the Social Contract He wrote, The Social Contract Tried to harmonize individual liberty with government authority Society agrees to be governed by their general will Individuals compelled to abide by the general will People should be forced to be free General will is community’s highest aspirations What is good for all is good for each individual

>Rousseau and the Social Contract “This means nothing less than that he will be Rousseau and the Social Contract “This means nothing less than that he will be forced to be free” What was best for all was best for the individual True freedom is devotion to laws that one has imposed on oneself

>Rousseau and the Social Contract   The creation of laws could never be Rousseau and the Social Contract The creation of laws could never be delegated to a parliamentary institution—or legislature “Any law which the people has not ratified in person is void; it is not law at all” “…as soon as Members are elected, the people is enslaved; it is nothing.” The ultimate statement of participatory democracy

>Rousseau and the Social Contract  He wrote, Emile  Important work on education Rousseau and the Social Contract He wrote, Emile Important work on education Education should foster children’s natural instincts Saw a necessary balance between feelings and reason Importance of promptings of the heart Precursor of the intellectual movement called Romanticism—emphasis on the heart, that dominated Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century

>Thomas Hobbes (5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679) was an English philosopher, whose Thomas Hobbes (5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679) was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.

>Hobbes His most famous work was called Leviathan.  Hobbes has been used to Hobbes His most famous work was called Leviathan. Hobbes has been used to justify absolute power in government. His view of human nature was negative, or pessimistic. Life without laws and controls would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

>From Leviathan NATURE (the art whereby God hath made and governs the world) is From Leviathan NATURE (the art whereby God hath made and governs the world) is by the art of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an artificial animal. For seeing life is but a motion of limbs, the beginning whereof is in some principle part within, why may we not say that all automata (engines that move themselves by springs and wheels as doth a watch) have an artificial life? For what is the heart, but a spring; and the nerves, but so many strings; and the joints, but so many wheels, giving motion to the whole body, such as was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet further imitating that rational and most excellent work of Nature, man. For by art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMONWEALTH, or STATE (in Latin, CIVITAS), which is but an artificial man, though of greater stature and strength than natural, for whose protection and defense it was intended; and in which the sovereignty is an artificial soul, as giving life and motion to the whole body…

>Hobbes’ Representative Theory Sovereign ‘figure’ is foundation of power  (Actual) representative embodies the Hobbes’ Representative Theory Sovereign ‘figure’ is foundation of power (Actual) representative embodies the ideal ‘person’ we create Like a body, sovereign power is unified “A multitude of men, are made One Person, when they are by one man, or one Person, Represented…And Unity, cannot otherwise be understood in a multitude”

>Hobbes Thoughts Natural right culminates in a doctrine of absolute sovereignty. If the sovereign Hobbes Thoughts Natural right culminates in a doctrine of absolute sovereignty. If the sovereign is too weak or oppressive, civil war will be the outcome. The rules governing the creation of a commonwealth are like the rules governing arithmetic and geometry not tennis where practice and experience matter. The sovereign’s judgment may be necessary in the complex world of politics, but that judgment should be augmented by the science of politics.

>John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher. Locke John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher. Locke is considered the first of the British Empiricists, but is equally important to social contract theory. His ideas had enormous influence on the development of epistemology and political philosophy, and he is widely regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, classical republicans, and contributors to liberal theory. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. This influence is reflected in the American Declaration of Independence.

>John Locke  View of the state of nature (pre-civil society) Human beings are John Locke View of the state of nature (pre-civil society) Human beings are rational, free & equal. They are capable of running their own lives. They have rights to life, health, liberty and possessions that no one should harm. Yet there are no mechanisms (no police, no courts, etc.) to ensure that the strong do not prey upon the weak.

>John Locke  To secure their rights, therefore, people give up some freedom and John Locke To secure their rights, therefore, people give up some freedom and form government. The government’s purpose is to protect rights. It is a type of contract. The people retain their sovereignty, and the government is just a mechanism to help them. The individual is superior to the government.

>John Locke  If government fails to protect those rights and becomes tyrannical, then John Locke If government fails to protect those rights and becomes tyrannical, then the contract is null and void. The government loses its legitimacy, and people are free to make a new government. [The Second Treatise on Government] Called a “right of revolution.”

>Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Adam Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.

>Adam Smith    Scottish philosopher  Best statement of laissez-faire (Принцип невмешательства Adam Smith Scottish philosopher Best statement of laissez-faire (Принцип невмешательства государства в экономическую деятельность частного сектора) Made in 1776 His famous work, The Wealth of Nations, provides the theoretical basis for capitalism.

>The Wealth of Nations Three basic principles of economics, including an attack on mercantilism The Wealth of Nations Three basic principles of economics, including an attack on mercantilism First principle--condemned the use of tariffs. Better to purchase a product from another nation rather than try to produce it if the other nation produces it cheaper Second principle, labor theory of value Gold and silver do not constitute true wealth Labor of individuals—farmers, artisans, merchants, etc., constitute the true wealth of nations Third Principle, Government should not interfere with economic management

>Adam Smith   Principle three —government only has three jobs To protect society Adam Smith Principle three —government only has three jobs To protect society from invasion To defend individuals from injustice and oppression To keep up certain public works, such as roads and canals, that private individuals could not afford

>Adam Smith The rich ... divide with the poor the produce of all their Adam Smith The rich ... divide with the poor the produce of all their improvements. They are led by an invisible hand to make nearly the same distribution of the necessaries of life which would have been made, had the earth been divided into equal proportions among all its inhabitants. It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. The propensity to truck, barter and exchange one thing for another is common to all men, and to be found in no other race of animals. No dog exchanges bones with another.