Society, Culture, and Sport Chapter 20 Sport Books Publisher 1
Topics Covered: n Brief history of sport in the USA n Brief history of the Olympic Games n Sport and American culture n Icons of American sport n The business of sport n Sport as a spectacle n Being an informed consumer Sport Books Publisher 2
Brief History of Sport in USA Sport Books Publisher 3
By analyzing American sport history and by examining the larger role sport currently plays in people's everyday lives, we can further understand how sport has come to permeate our culture and society. Sport Books Publisher 4
New Beginnings (1400 s to 1860) 15 th and 16 th century n European explorers and settlers fascinated by Native American games – Example: baggataway • To develop warrior’s skill • First viewed by French • Today known as lacrosse 17 th and 18 th century n Hampered development due to church sentiment and wars Sport Books Publisher 5
New Beginnings (1400 s to 1860) Late 18 th and 19 th century n End of American Revolution n Beginning of First Industrial revolution – More leisure time – Sports/games develop more rapidly n Mostly social elite sports – Examples: golf, horse racing, target shooting n Bare-knuckle fights – Initially illegal; slave against slave – Universally accepted end of 19 th century Sport Books Publisher 6
The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918) Ice Hockey n King’s College, Nova Scotia (Canada) Played on a frozen pond with a wooden puck and a stick Montreal Quebec (Canada) New England States (USA) Sport Books Publisher 7
The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918) Baseball n Origin of “bat and ball” or “town ball”: – Abner Doubleday, Cooperstown NY(1839) – Western MA (late 1700 s) – Small towns in Eastern NY and New England; (late 1700 s) n Origin of modern baseball: – Alexander Cartwright; Knickerbockers Base Ball Club; 1845 Spread throughout the country during the Civil War years n Played by all n Sport Books Publisher 8
The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918) Football n Originally the “Boston game” n First game – 1869 – Soccer rules Rugby rules adopted in 1867 n 11 -man game (versus 15) n – Adopted several years later – Allowed for more control and strategy – Walter Camp – “father of modern football” Sport Books Publisher 9
The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918) Basketball n Truly North American in origin n Developed by Dr. James Naismith visiting YMCA Training School (now Springfield College) in MA in 1890 – Soccer ball and peach baskets Developed as a form of recreation to pass away cold New England winters n Spread by YMCA Training School graduates to urban areas n Sport Books Publisher James Naismith 10
The Civil War and the Second Industrial Revolution (1861 to 1918) Other activities n Cycling – Bicycle craze due to overpopulation and transportation issues – Development of competitive cycling n Car racing – Invention of automobile – Popular pastime for those who could afford it n Modern Olympic Games – Pierre de Coubertin – Modeled after ancient Olympics Sport Books Publisher 11
Post-World War I Era (1919 to present) n Post WWI and Great Depression Lou Gehrig – “Golden age” of sport – American sports icons help nation put painful WWI memories behind – Beginning of Professional leagues • The American Professional Football League (1920) – The Negro League of Baseball – Sport seen as form of entertainment that generates revenue • Athletes paid and traded • Football moved to larger urban areas – Olympics gained momentum n Post WWII – Economic boom accompanied by emergence of sport, recreation, and physical activity as important part of our society Sport Books Publisher 12
Post-World War I Era (1919 to present) Emergence of Mass Media n Invention of radio n Invention of TV (1950 s and 1960 s) – Brought sport icons to people’s homes – Sport perfect medium for TV – Gathered families n Billie Jean King Sports popularity in mass media and with it participation in sports grows – Baseball – Tennis – Billie Jean King n Sports on TV influence children and adults Sport Books Publisher 13
Post-World War I Era (1919 to present) Sport for All n Amendment XIV – Equal access for all races – Brown v. Board of Education (1954) – Against doctrine of “separate but equal”/Plessy v. Ferguson (1986) n Title IX – Equal opportunity and funding regardless of sex – Established the Education Amendments of 1972 – Produced a change in attitude toward female athletes and sports Sport Books Publisher 14
Brief History of Olympic Games Sport Books Publisher 15
IV London, 1908 V Stockholm, 1912 I Athens, 1896 II Paris, 1900 III St. Louis, 1904 • First modern Olympics • First unofficial appearance of women (golf and tennis) • Also coincided with • Originally awarded • Electronic devices, public address to Rome World’s Fair systems, and photo • Athletes walked in • 4½ months finishes used by nation for the duration • First to have first time • First to utilize representation from • Ray Ewry medal system all five continents • George Eyser • Jim Thorpe • Developed by Baron Pierre de Coubertin • IOC • Vision: to promote the idea of true armature athletic competition • In conjunction with World's Fair • Ray Ewry, Myer Pristein • James Connolly SUMMER Sport Books Publisher 16
WWI 1914 -1918 VI Berlin, 1916 VII Antwerp, 1920 VIII Paris, 1924 • Cancelled due to WWI • Olympic flag • First Olympic village • Still holds the distinction of the Games of VI Olympiad • Motto “Citius, • Release of dove as Altius, Fortius” a symbol of peace • Raising of 3 flags • Ethelda Bleibtrey in the closing ceremony • Athlete’s Oath • Johnny Weissmuller IX Amsterdam, 1928 X Los Angeles, 1932 • Ignition of Olympic flame during opening ceremonies • Began the tradition of honoring victors with their national anthem • First time women • Babe Didrikson were recognized as competitors in “athletic” events (e. g. , track and field) • Elizabeth Robinson SUMMER Sport Books Publisher 17
WWII 1939 -1945 XI Berlin, 1936 WWII 1939 -1945 XII Helsinki, 1940 • First TV broadcast • Cancelled due to WWII • Torch relay introduced • “the Hitler Olympics”: Hitler’s means of propaganda XIII London, 1944 XIV London, 1948 XV Helsinki, 1952 • Cancelled due to WWII • First time showing of USSR, Israel, and Federal Republic of Germany • Reawarded to London • First to be seen on home TV’s • Bob Mathias, Robert Richards • Jesse Owens embarrassed Hitler by winning 4 gold medals • Setting stage for USSR v. USA rivalry • Harrison Dilard, Patricia Mc. Cormick • Marjorie Gestring SUMMER Sport Books Publisher 18
XVI Melbourne, 1956 XVII Rome, 1960 • Played an anthem • First city in the that was played southern back at first modern hemisphere to host Olympics in Athens; became the official • Athletes walk anthem together v. by nation for the • Dominated by closing ceremonies USSR • Wilma Rudolph, Al • Wilma Rudolph, Oerter Cassius Clay XVIII Tokyo, 1964 • First time the Games were hosted by an Asian nation • Volleyball – first women’s team sport • Billy Mills, Joe Frazier XIX Mexico City, 1968 • Altitude benefited short distance and disadvantaged long distance events • Long jump world record made that remained unbroken for 22 years (Bob Beamon) XX Munich, 1972 • September 5, 1972 Palestinian terrorists (Black September) took hostage and killed 11 Israeli athletes • The first Judge’s Oath was recited • Mark Spitz • Tommie Smith and John Carlos protest against racial segregation in USA SUMMER Sport Books Publisher 19
XXI Montreal, 1976 • Allegations of suspected drug use were at the forefront of media coverage • First ever perfect score in gymnastics earned by Nadia Comaneci of Romania XXII Moscow, 1980 XXIII Los Angeles, 1984 • A U. S. lead boycott by Western nations • In response to protesting the Moscow Olympics Soviet invasion of Soviets and other Afghanistan nations boycott • Soviet team dominated XXIV Seoul, 1988 • South Korean government refused • First time since to co-host with the Munich to be held North Korea without a boycott • Huge success; >$200 million profit • North Korea and Cuba boycott in response • Carl Lewis, Joan Benoit • Florence Griffith. Joyner, Matt Biondi • South Africa was allowed to participate following abolishment of apartheid • W and E Germany together • Edwin Moses, Greg Louganis SUMMER XXV Barcelona, 1992 • Russian states separate • Basketball Dream Team, Gail Devers Sport Books Publisher 20
• A bomb detonated in Centennial Olympic Park • 2 people killed; 100 injured • Carl Lewis, Michael Johnson SUMMER XXVII Sydney, 2000 XXVII Athens, 2004 • First time since Korean War, North and South played together • Return home after more than a century • Women took part in weightlifting and decathlon • Post-September 11; Extra degree of security • Marion Jones, Michael Johnson XXVI Atlanta, 1996 • No incident • Most expensive in history • Michael Phelps Sport Books Publisher 21
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WWII 1939 -1945 I Chamonix, 1924 II St. Moritz, 1928 • Originally an “International Winter Sports Week” • Sonja Henie, future Hollywood film star, • First in the earns first three Americas gold medals • Sled dog racing • U. S. wins two gold appears as a medals in bobsled demonstration sport and skeleton tracks • Eddie Eagen the only athlete ever to win gold in both Summer and Winter Olympics • Officially recognized as winter Olympics in 1926 • Charles Jewtraw WINTER III Lake Placid, 1932 IV Garmisch. Partenkirchen, 1936 1940& 1944 • Cancelled due to WWI • First time for Alpine events • Unlike Summer Olympics did not • Austrian and Swiss keep their skier boycotted to numerical protest exclusion of designations ski instructors • Leo Freisinger Sport Books Publisher 23
V St. Moritz, 1948 VI Oslo, 1952 • Return after 20 years to same place • Nordic ski events open to women for the first time • Germany and Japan not invited • Dick button • Gretchen Fraser, Dick Burton VII Cortina d’Ampezzo, 1956 • First appearance by the USSR • First Athlete’s Oath taken by a woman • Last outdoor figure skating events • Tenley Albright WINTER VIII Squaw Valley, IX Innsbruck, 1964 1960 • Endangered due to • First use of instant lack of snow replay • Austrian Army • Biathlon made its brought snow from debut the surrounding mountaintops • Women speedskating • USSR dominated • Carol Heiss, David • Terry Mc. Dermott Jenkins Sport Books Publisher 24
X Grenoble, 1968 XI Sapporo, 1972 • Women underwent sex tests • First outside of Europe or U. S. • The East German Women’s luge team disqualified for heating the runners • Karl Schranz banned for receiving payments from ski manufacturer • First broadcast in color TV • Peggy Fleming • Soviet hockey players, paid by government, allowed XII Innsbruck, 1976 XIII Lake Placid, 1980 • Originally awarded to Denver but were removed due to funding issues • Second time in same place • Ice dancing entered as Olympic event • Dorothy Hamill, Peter Mueller, Sheila Young XIV Sarajevo, 1984 • 20 -km Nordic event for women • New IOC president • Artificial snow • Phil and Steve • U. S. hockey team Mahre, Scott defeated USSR, the Hamilton “Miracle on Ice” • Eric Heiden • Canadian hockey boycott WINTER • 7 of 8 USA medals won by women Sport Books Publisher 25
XV Calgary, 1988 • First in Canada • Spread out over three weekend • Speedskating under a covered venue • Added super G and Alpine combined • Brian Boitano, Bonnie Blair WINTER XVI Albertville, 1992 • Last Winter Games to be held in the same year as the Summer Games • Women’s biathlon • Added freestyle skiing and shorttrack speedskating • Bonnie Blair, Kristi Yamaguchi, Nancy Kerrigan XVII Lillehammer, 1994 XVII Nagano, 1998 • First time for • One of the greatest Women’s hockey ever • Reintroduced • Dan Jansen, curling Nancy Kerrigan, • Added Tonya Harding snowboarding • NHL players allowed to participate • Jonny Moseley, Picabo Street, Tara Lipinski Sport Books Publisher XIX Salt Lake City, 2002 • Return of skeleton • Women’s bobsled • French judge suspended for misconduct; gold medals given to both Russian and Canadian pairs • Sarah Hughes 26
XX Torino, 2006 • Italy hosts for the second time • Extreme snowboard cross added • Sarah Konrad, Shani Davis WINTER Sport Books Publisher 27
Sport and American Culture Sport Books Publisher 28
Sport and Culture n Sport and American culture are intricately intertwined in many significant ways n Example: Olympics continue to be seen as a cultural event as well as arena for athletic accomplishment Sport Books Publisher 29
The Relationship Between Sport and Culture n Culture represents the ways of life people create in a given society – It is a creation of people, not something that is imposed upon a group n The relationship between sport and culture can be see in the following three areas: Sport Books Publisher 30
1. Quest for Excitement Sport appeals to participants’ or spectators’ quest for excitement n Sport offers physical challenge and psychological risks that are hard to find in contemporary society n Examples? n Sport Books Publisher 31
2. The Appeal of Sports n Everyone has an appreciation of the tremendous physical skills required to participate in high level sports Sport Books Publisher 32
3. Sport’s Cultural Significance Because of our need for development of social identification and rivalries n We need to be part of a collective whole and to identify with our accomplishments n Example: “The Miracle on Ice” n Sport Books Publisher 33
What is Sport Culture? n Development of sport allowed the formation of a myriad of new social groups n These groups formed their own criteria for acceptance to an inner circle, thus creating a “culture” within a particular sport n Sport culture is constantly redefining itself n Spectators have developed their own distinguishing social groups by aligning with a particular team Sport Books Publisher 34
What is Sport Culture? Sports Fans Versus Sports Fanatics n Sports fans: – Passive admirers or true devotees – Have true appreciation for the game – Consider themselves as outsiders (i. e. , can’t change the game) n Sports fanatics: – – Have difficulty dissociating from the game Sport becomes and obsession Believe they can actually change the outcome Often engage in unruly behavior Sport Books Publisher 35
Icons of American Sport Books Publisher 36
Baseball n Satchel Paige – – n One of the most dominant pitchers Career of >4 decades and >2, 500 games Lou Gehrig Started in Negro League (1920 s) One of the early pioneers in breaking the color barrier in professional sport Lou Gehrig – – The original Iron Man Played 2, 130 consecutive games In 1931 hit 181 RBIs (still an American League record) In 1941 died of ALS, now referred to as Lou Gehrig's disease Sport Books Publisher 37
Football Vince Lombardi n Walter Payton – – n All-time leading rusher in professional football (until 2002) 2 time NFL MVP (1977 and 1985) Spent entire career with one organization – Chicago Bears High community involvement Vince Lombardi – Named the coach of the century (2000; ESPN) – Head coach of the Green Bay Packers (1958) – Super bowl trophy now called the Vince Lombardi Trophy Sport Books Publisher 38
Professional Golf Tiger Woods n Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias – First and probably the finest female professional multi-sport athlete – Basketball, track and field, golf – First female to participate in men’s professional golf tournament (1945 Los Angeles open) n Eldrick “Tiger” Woods – Youngest golfer to achieve a world #1 ranking (age 21) – By age 5 was featured in Golf Digest magazine – Youngest golfer to achieve U. S. Amateur Championship (age 15) – The first golfer to hold four major golf championship titles concurrently Sport Books Publisher 39
Wilma Rudolph Olympic Athletes n Mary Lou Retton – 1 st American to ever win Olympic gold in gymnastics (1984; age 16) n Jesse Owens – Shattered the walls of sports racism by leaving “the Hitler Olympics” (1936) with 4 gold medals n Muhammad Ali – Earned Olympic gold medal in boxing at age 18 (1960) – Outspoken supporter of Civil Rights; refused induction into the U. S. army in 1967 n Wilma Rudolph – Star Olympic athlete in track and field – United Press Athlete of the Year and the Associated Press Woman Athlete of the Year (1960) n Carl Lewis – Dominated track and field on the world stage for >decade – Four Olympic gold medals in 1984 – Last Olympic gold medal in 1996 at age 35 Sport Books Publisher 40
Michael Jordan Basketball n Michael Jordan – One of the greatest athletes of all time – 15 -year NBA career – NBA accolades: 6 championships, 7 scoring titles, 6 Finals MVP trophies, 5 league MVP trophies, 1 Defensive Player of the Year award n Dr. James Naismith – Canadian-born educator known as the inventor of basketball – Also credited for developing first football helmet Sport Books Publisher 41
Professional Tennis n Arthur Ashe – Ranked number one in the world on several occasions – Better known for being a courageous advocate for social change: • Racism and apartheid in South Africa • HIV and AIDS n Billie Jean (Moffit) King Billie Jean King – Ranked number one in the world on numerous occasions – A tireless advocate for women’s rights – In “the Battle of the Sexes” (1973) King defeated former Wimbledon men’s champion Bobby Riggs (6 -4, 6 -3) Sport Books Publisher 42
The Business of Sport Books Publisher 43
The Business of Sport n Economic factors now dominate major decisions that affect the business of sport n Sport is one of the fastest growing industries in the U. S. n The economic conditions that allow corporate business to thrive are the same conditions necessary for the survival of commercial sport Sport Books Publisher 44
The Business of Sport Licensing fees Gate receipts Media rights Merchandise Revenues from sales of concessions Internet hits Sponsorship Sport Books Publisher Other? 45
Professional Sports in North America Athletes are paid n Sports are privately owned n Table. Comparison of minor league versus top NA franchise owners Minor League Profit n. Negative Top franchise n. Make millions of dollars n. Lucky to break even n. Owners go out of business Owner description n. Individuals or partnership Sport Books Publisher n. Large corporations, wealthy partnerships, or individuals 46
Amateur Sport in the US n Athletes participate for the love of the game, not for a salary n Do not have owner n Have governing bodies: – President’s Council on Physical Fitness – United States Olympic Committee – Amateur Athletic Union Sport Books Publisher 47
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Sport Sponsorship n An agreement between a commercial company and an individual, team, or sport that in return for money athletes advertise the names of sponsors through: – Clothing lines, corporate logos, TV ads, and choice of commodities n Found in professional and amateur sports Sport Books Publisher 49
Sport Sponsorship: Advantages and Disadvantages for Professional Athletes Money Made Money Lost Sport Books Publisher 50
Sport Sponsorship: Advantages and Disadvantages for Amateur Athletes • Strong reliance = powerful hold by the sponsor Allows athletes to give up a job and train full-time • Sponsors request changes in organization • Hard to attract sponsors if low TV appeal Sport Books Publisher 51
Sport Sponsorship: How It All Works n Agreed period of time (months or years) n Sign legal agreement to prevent quick termination if things go wrong – Example: Actions of athlete brings bad publicity – Example: Sponsor is linked with unethical practice n Since this agreement is difficult to terminate, it important to make correct selection Sport Books Publisher 52
Sport Sponsorship: The Nature of the Sponsorship n Should companies that sell unsuitable products be allowed to sponsor sports? n Amateur sports: many colleges and universities no longer willing to sign agreements with unsuitable sponsors n Professional sports: many franchises are sponsored by precisely such organizations Sport Books Publisher 53
Sport as a Spectacle Sport Books Publisher 54
Television n Televised sports have become a form of sportainment – The equivalent of a TV movie that claims to be based on a true story n Sports account for a growing proportion of income made on the sales of commercial time by television companies n TV companies are therefore willing to spend an escalating amount of money for the rights to televise certain sports and sporting events Sport Books Publisher 55
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Newspapers One sports page in common newspapers ~1900’s • Sports page expanded to sports “section” 1920’s TODAY • More daily coverage devoted to sport than any other topic (~25%) • Sports section = 1/3 of total circulation • Tremendous circulation reaches millions of readers • Large advertising revenues for newspapers Sport Books Publisher 57
Books and Magazines n Magazines – About major and minor sports – Popular content: biographies, statistics, pictures, all forms of news – Magazines about sports in general are harder to find and generally sales have not done well (exception: Sports Illustrated) n Books – Popular content: (auto)biographies, coaching, and training – Less popular content: novels based on sport Sport Books Publisher 58
Radio n Before TV, radio was #1 media form n Advantages of radio (versus TV) live event broadcasting: – Company: More economical because it involves smaller # of broadcasters and producers – Listener: Costs less, more mobile – therefore can do other things at the same time Sport Books Publisher 59
Film and Video n In spite of their dramatic content, sports are not a popular topic for films and videos n Video collection of sporting moments and instructional videos remain popular Sport Books Publisher 60
Internet n Unlike other media forms: – Allows the consumer to access information at the time of his or her choosing – Not limited to sequential programming n Use of Internet: – Extension of existing media – Fantasy leagues Sport Books Publisher 61
Being and Informed Consumer Sport Books Publisher 62
n Sport commercialism, as well as our rich sports history, impact on us as individual consumers n Corporations have a financial interest in the average American citizen – U. S. high school student Sport Books Publisher 63
Factors Influencing Student Participation n People participate in physical activity (PA) for different reasons at different points in their lives n Issues considered by high school students will be different than those considered by adults Sport Books Publisher 64
Media influences Individual perception of sport and PA Teacher or coach Participation American athlete role models Commercial interests Other ? Sport Books Publisher 65
The Benefits of School and Community PA Improving cohesion among students and faculty Other? School and Community PA Improved selfesteem and overall mood Improved fitness levels Development of school spirit Improved fitness Lower hospitalization costs Greater overall acceptance by one’s peers Sport Books Publisher 66
The Importance of Being an Informed Consumer n Advertisers constantly tell us that we currently have comes up far short n We will almost always feel the need to buy more and better sports and exercise equipment Sport Books Publisher 67
Technology n Continues to change sports: – Tennis players hit with greater power using larger, graphite, tightly strung rackets – Golfers have advantage by playing with titanium heads – Introduction of the flexible fiberglass pole completely changed pole vaulting – Other examples? n However, the choice of racket or club will make little, if any, difference to nonelite performance n Therefore, it is best to go with less expensive equipment until an advanced level is reached Sport Books Publisher 68
Clothing n Have performance benefit: – – n Heat removal Windproof Aerodynamic advantage Biomechanical advantage of shoes Again, these technological advances have little benefit for nonelite performance Sport Books Publisher 69
Summary: n History of sport in the U. S. n Brief retrospective of the Olympic Games n Reflection on some of the most significant American sports role models n Relationship between sport and culture in the U. S. n Sport has become a business and a spectacle n Impact of sports trends on us as individuals Sport Books Publisher 70
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