Mechanisms of conflict management The correlation of force

Mechanisms of conflict management The correlation of force and peaceful settlement methods

Mechanisms of conflict management • Diplomatic methods • Economic mechanisms • Humanitarian operations (the information element) • Legal methods • The military possibilities Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 2

Diplomatic methods • Institutional arrangements - the members of • the League of Nations, the United Nations ought to the duty of up to any use of force use of only peaceful means for settling the conflict • The collective nature of efforts (send observers for research mission, to offer SC UN services, appoint a mediator to take the work of reconciliation to himself) • The obligatory character of the settlement Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 3

Diplomatic methods • Disadvantages of The Charter of • The League of Nations: • - The Council of LN refrains from making recommendations, if the question is in the competence of one of the States, • - there is no unanimity - there is no solution of (state secures the freedom of action) • The Charter of the UN insists on the mandatory decisions adopted by the UN Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 4

Economic mechanisms • Universality of application • The limited economic levers - рычаги (narcotic mafia structures) • The high cost of the «balance of forces» • Increased spending on constantly cultivating and upgrading weapons • You cannot buy (откупиться) from conflicts on religious or ethnic grounds Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 5

Humanitarian operations • The complexity of the concept (the term is not clear) • A means of political pressure • The role of the information element: - perception of the conflict through the mass media, - there's no place for a real analysis of the situation, - possibility to carry out operations outside the framework of the United Nations Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 6

Legal methods • Reduction of the role of the UN • There is no unity of approaches in the UN security Council • Neglect of the norms of international private law • Raising the status of the NATO • The lag of the international law-making on the development of events Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 7

The military possibilities • 1. Participation in military operations (maintenance of the arms control agreements, the freedom of navigation) • 2. Assistance to local civil administration: - ensuring the rule of law in the area of the maintenance of peace, - maintenance of the infrastructure, - border security, terrorism Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 8

The military possibilities • 3. The provision of humanitarian assistance to the population of disaster, relief and assistance to refugees • 4. Unilateral military operation to rescue the forcibly held personnel, evacuation of peaceful population Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 9

The UN peacekeeping force • The Charter of the United Nations was signed, in San Francisco, on 26 June 1945 and is the foundation document for all the United Nations work. • The United Nations was established to “save succeeding generations from the scourge - бедствие of war” and one of its main purposes is to maintain international peace and security. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 10

The UN peacekeeping force • Peacekeeping, although not explicitly provided for in the Charter, has evolved into one of the main tools used by the United Nations to achieve this purpose. • International human rights law is an integral part of the normative framework for United Nations peacekeeping operations. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 11

The UN peacekeeping force • The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which sets the cornerstone of international human rights standards, emphasizes that human rights and fundamental freedoms are universal and guaranteed to everybody. • United Nations peacekeeping operations should be conducted in full respect of human rights and should seek to advance human rights through the implementation of their mandates Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 12

The UN peacekeeping force International humanitarian law is contained in the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their two Additional Protocols of 1977 , as well as in rules regulating the means and methods of combat. • International humanitarian law also includes conventions and treaties on the protection of cultural property and the environment during armed conflict, as well as protection of victims of the conflict. • • Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 13

Security Council mandates • United Nations peacekeeping operations are deployed on the basis of a mandate from the United Nations Security Council. • Security Council mandates differ from situation to situation, depending on the nature of the conflict and the specific challenges it presents. • Security Council mandates are influenced by the nature and content of the agreement reached by the parties to the conflict. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 14

Security Council mandates • Security Council mandates reflect the broader normative debates shaping the international environment. • In this regard, there a number of crosscutting, thematic tasks that are regularly assigned to United Nations peacekeeping operations on the basis of the following landmark Security • Council resolutions: Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 15

Security Council resolutions • Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) on women, peace and security; • Security Council resolution 1612 (2005) on children and armed conflict; • Security Council resolution 1674 (2006) on the protection of civilians in armed conflict; Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 16

Security Council resolutions • The Preventing Sexual Violence Initiative (PSVI) was initiated by Angelina Jolie an American actress, film director, and screenwriter (Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)) during 8 Foreign Ministers meeting at 18 April 2013 in London. • A new international protocol on the investigation and documentation of sexual violence in conflict and practical assistance in countries affected by this problem should be adopted. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 17

Change of tasks: • With the end of the Cold War, the strategic context for United Nations peace - keeping changed dramatically and the Security Council began to work more actively to promote the containment and peaceful resolution of regional conflicts. • While the end of the Cold War coincided with a general decline in the incidence of conflict around the world, internal armed conflicts constitute the vast majority of today’s wars. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 18

Change of reasons: • Many of these conflicts take place in the world’s poorest countries where state capacity may be weak, and where belligerents may be motivated by economic gain, as much as ideology or past grievances. • Moreover, evidence has shown that a large proportion of all civil wars are due to a relapse of conflict, the risks of which are particularly high in the first five to 10 years following a conflict. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 19

“multi-dimensional” United Nations peacekeeping operations • The transformation of the international environment has given rise to a new generation of “multi-dimensional” United Nations peacekeeping operations. • These operations are typically deployed in the dangerous aftermath of a violent internal conflict and may employ a mix of military, police and civilian capabilities to support the implementation of a comprehensive peace agreement Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 20

“multi-dimensional” United Nations peacekeeping operations • • • Infrastructure Employment Economic governance Civil administration Elections Political process Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 21

“multi-dimensional” United Nations peacekeeping operations • Security operations • DDR (disarmament, demobilization and reintegration) • Rule of law • Human rights • Capacity building • Humanitarian assistance Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 22

Within this broader context, the core functions of a multi-dimensional United Nations peacekeeping operation are to: • a) Create a secure and stable environment while strengthening the State’s ability to provide security, with full respect for the rule of law and human rights; • b) Facilitate the political process by promoting dialogue and reconciliation and supporting the establishment of legitimate and effective institutions of governance; • c) Provide a framework for ensuring that all United Nations and other international actors pursue their activities at the country-level in a coherent and coordinated manner. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 23

The UN peacekeeping force • The UN peacekeeping force (peace-making contingent of the United Nations) - the armed forces of the countries - members of the United Nations, selected according to the UN Charter in order to prevent and eliminate threats to peace and security by joint law enforcement actions (military demonstrations, blockade, etc. ), if the measures of economic and political nature are /or were insufficient. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 24

The purpose of the peacekeeping forces: • Separation of the warring parties • Prevention of military clashes between them • Control over the armed actions of the warring parties. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 25

Conflict prevention • involves the application of structural or diplomatic measures to keep intra-state or interstate tensions and disputes from escalating into violent conflict. • Ideally, it should build on structured early warning, information gathering and a careful analysis of the factors driving the conflict. • Conflict prevention activities may include the use of the Secretary-General’s “good offices, ” preventive deployment or confidence-building measures. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 26

Peacemaking • generally includes measures to address conflicts in progress and usually involves diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement. • The United Nations Secretary-General, upon the request of the Security Council or the General Assembly or at his her own initiative, may exercise his or her “good offices” to facilitate the resolution of the conflict. • Peacemakers may also be envoys, governments, groups of states, regional organizations or the United Nations. • Peacemaking efforts may also be undertaken by unofficial and non-governmental groups, or by a prominent personality working independently. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 27

Peacekeeping • is a technique designed to preserve the peace, however fragile, where fighting has been halted, and to assist in implementing agreements achieved by the peacemakers. • Over the years, peacekeeping has evolved from a primarily military model of observing cease-fires and the separation of forces after inter-state wars, • to incorporate a complex model of many elements – military, police and civilian – working together to help lay the foundations for sustainable peace Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 28

Peace enforcement • involves the application, with the authorization of the Security Council, of a range of coercive measures, including the use of military force. • Such actions are authorized to restore international peace and security in situations where the Security Council has determined the existence of a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression. • The Security Council may utilize, where appropriate, regional organizations and agencies for enforcement action under its authority. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 29

Peacebuilding • involves a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities at all levels for conflict management, and to lay the foundation for sustainable peace and development. • Peacebuilding is a complex, long-term process of creating the necessary conditions for sustainable peace. • It works by addressing the deep-rooted, structural causes of violent conflict in a comprehensive manner. • Peacebuilding measures address core issues that effect the functioning of society and the State, and seek to enhance the capacity of the State to effectively and legitimately carry out its core functions. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 30

Peacekeeping operations • Decisions on the establishment, composition, use and financing of the UN peacekeeping forces are taken by the UN Security Council. • Strategic management is given by the Military staff Committee. • In 1988, the UN peacekeeping forces were awarded the Nobel peace prize. • On May 29, 2003. The UN General Assembly established the holiday - the international day of UN peacekeepers. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 31

Peacekeeping operations • The establishment of the peace - peacemaking (diplomatic efforts, etc. ) • The maintenance of peace - peacekeeping (implementation) • Deterrence of the warring parties - peace enforcement • Recovery of the economy and the politicaleconomic stability - peace-building Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 32

Peacekeeping operations • The notions of peacemaking, peace enforcement, peace-building in the UN Charter are not available. • The mandates of these operations based on Chapter VII, namely the «action in case of threat to peace or breach of the peace and the aggressive actions» • After the end of the «cold war» the essence of the UN operations has changed dramatically Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 33

Peacekeeping operations • «Maintenance of peace» is perceived by many aspects: - overseeing the implementation of the agreements on a cease-fire, - organization of elections and the observation of their conduct, - protection of human rights, - carrying out of land reform, - delivery of humanitarian assistance, - reconstruction of the destroyed state structures. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 34

Peacekeeping operations • Disadvantages of operations peace enforcement: - the same side of threatened by applying the air strikes and with it also conduct negotiations on cooperation, - the gap between mandates and resources of the United Nations (the debts of the countries). • SC gives sanction to take measures regardless of whatever the consent of the conflicting parties • From 1945 to 2003 47 PKOs and 6 Pf. P without. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 35

Peacekeeping operations • The first mission of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace was established in 1948, • when the UN security Council authorized the deployment of UN military observers in the middle East with the purpose of control over the observance of the armistice Agreements between Israel and its Arab neighbors. • Since then, 64 operations of the United Nations were held for the maintenance of peace. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 36

Peacekeeping operations • The first peacekeeping mission was launched in 1948. This mission, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was sent to the newly created State of Israel (where a conflict had just reached a ceasefire). • Almost a year later, the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) was authorized to monitor relations between the two nations Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 37

Peacekeeping operations • The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was sent to the newly created State of Israel, where a conflict between the Israelis and the Arab states over the creation of Israel had just reached a ceasefire. • The UNTSO remains in operation to this day, although the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict has certainly not abated. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 38

Peacekeeping operations • As the Korean War ends with the Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953, UN forces remained along the south side of demilitarized zone until 1967, when American and South Korean forces took it over. • The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations was created in 1992 to support increased demand from the states for special peacekeeping missions. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 39

Peacekeeping operations • The United Nations responded to Suez Crisis of 1956, a war between the alliance of the United Kingdom, France, and Israel, and Egypt, which was supported by other Arab nations. • When a ceasefire was declared in 1957, Canadian diplomat (and future Prime Minister) Lester Bowles Pearson suggested that the United Nations station a peacekeeping force in the Suez in order to ensure that the ceasefire was honored by both sides Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 40

Peacekeeping operations • Pearson had initially suggested that the force consist of mainly Canadian soldiers, but the Egyptians were suspicious of having a Commonwealth nation defend them against the United Kingdom and her allies. • In the end, a wide variety of national forces were drawn upon to ensure national diversity. • Pearson till today considered as a father of modern peacekeeping. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 41

The United Nations Emergency Force was Pearson's creation. In 1957, for his role in resolving the Suez Crisis through the United Nations, Pearson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 42

Current peacekeeping operations • Since 1948 there have been 67 UN peacekeeping operations. • Close to 130 nations have contributed personnel at various times, and 115 are currently providing uniformed peacekeepers. • As of Aug. 31, 2012, there were 15 peacekeeping operations under way with a total of 116, 515 personnel. • Of the 18, 170 civilians serving, 12, 573 are local. • Total fatalities among the peacekeepers stand at 3, 025. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 43

Current peacekeeping operations • There are currently 14 peacekeeping operations and one special political mission – the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) – led by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. • For the first 40 years of its history (1945 -1985), the United Nations has established a total of 13 peacekeeping operations, while for the next 25 years (1986 -2010 years) was launched 51 such an operations. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 44

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International Security Assistance Force • The War in Afghanistan (2001 -present) refers to the intervention in the Afghan Civil War by the United States and its allies, following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, • to dismantle Al-Qaeda, the Islamic terrorist organization led by Osama bin Laden and • to remove from power the Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist regime led by Mullah Mohammed Omar, which at the time controlled 90% of Afghanistan and hosted Al-Qaeda leadership Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 46

History of event • President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over bin Laden and al-Qaeda leadership which was supporting the Taliban in its war with the Northern Alliance. • The Taliban declined to extradite him without evidence of his involvement in the 9/11 attacks. • The United States refused to negotiate and launched Operation Enduring Freedom on October 7, 2001 with the United Kingdom, later joined by Canada, Australia, France and other mainly western allies, to attack the Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces in conjunction with the Northern Alliance Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 47

History of event • The U. S. and its allies quickly drove the Taliban from power and captured all major cities and towns in the country. • At the Bonn Conference in December 2001, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, • Many Al Qaeda and Taliban leaders escaped to neighboring Pakistan or retreated to rural or remote mountainous regions. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 48

International Security Assistance Force • In December 2001, the U. N. Security Council established the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), to oversee security in the country and train the Afghan National Army • In 2003, NATO assumed leadership of ISAF, included troops from 42 countries, with NATO members providing the core of the force. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 49

UNAMA • The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) is a political UN mission established at the request of the Government of Afghanistan to assist it and the people of Afghanistan in laying the foundations for sustainable peace and development. • UNAMA was established on 28 March 2002 by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1401 Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 50

The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan • UNAMA is a political mission of the UN and comes under the remit of the UN’s Department of Peacekeeping Operations. • Its headquarter is in Kabul. In addition UNAMA has 23 regional and provincial offices across Afghanistan and liaison offices in Islamabad and Teheran • The developmental pillar of UNAMA focuses on relief efforts, delivery aid to where it is needed most, and the reconstruction of the infrastructure and other important components of society. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 51

International Security Assistance Force • On 2 May 2011, U. S. forces killed Osama bin Laden in Abbotabad, Pakistan. • On 21 May 2012 the leaders of the NATOmember countries endorsed an exit strategy for removing NATO soldiers from Afghanistan. • The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) includes soldiers from 46 countries with U. S. troops making up about half its force Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 52

International Security Assistance Force • ISAF had initially been established as a stabilization force by the UN Security Council on 20 December 2001, to secure Kabul. • Its mandate did not extend beyond this area for the first few years. • On 11 August 2003, NATO assumed political command coordination of ISAF. • On 31 July 2006, ISAF assumed command of the south of the country, and by 5 October 2006, of the east Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 53

Barack Obama’s strategy • The plan to transfer security responsibility to Afghan forces is the centerpiece of U. S. President Barack Obama's revised Afghanistan strategy • The Afghan Army was plagued by inefficiency and endemic corruption • Desertion has been a significant problem in the Afghan Army. One in every four combat soldiers quit the Afghan Army • Approximately 17 percent of them test positive for illegal drugs. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 54

Non-United Nations Peacekeeping • In 1981, an agreement between Israel and Egypt formed the Multinational Force and Observers which continues to monitor the Sinai Peninsula. • Six years later, the Indian Peace Keeping Force entered Sri Lanka to help maintain peace. The situation became a quagmire, and India was asked to withdraw in 1990 by the Sri Lankan Prime Minister having formed a pact with the Tamil Tiger rebels. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 55

Non-United Nations Peacekeeping • In November 1988, India also helped restore government of Maumoon Abdul Gayoom in Maldives under Operation Cactus. • On 20 December 1995, under a UN mandate, a NATO-led force (IFOR) entered Bosnia in order to implement The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. • In a similar manner, a NATO operation (KFOR) continues in the former Serbian province of Kosovo. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 56

The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, or UNIFIL • The duration of The March 1978 to the present time • Population (as at 28 February 2010): • military - 11 766; • the international civilian personnel - 337; • local civilian staff – 659 • It was created on 19 March 1978, to confirm Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon which Israel had invaded five days prior Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 57

Countries providing military personnel: • Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Hungary, Ghana, Guatemala, Germany, Greece, Denmark, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Cambodia, Qatar, Cyprus, China, Malaysia, Nepal, the United Republic of Tanzania, Portugal, El Salvador, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden, Turkey, France, Croatia, Montenegro, Sri Lanka (33) Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 58

The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, or UNIFIL • • • The number of killed 291 people: personal composition - 275; military observers - 2; the international civilian personnel - 8; local civil personnel – 6 The budget approved for the period from July 1, 2010 to June 30, 2011: 518 710 200 $. Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 59

Participated countries • Despite the large number of contributors, the greatest burden continues to be borne by a core group of developing countries, who often profit financially from their participation in such missions. • The 10 main troop-contributing countries to UN peacekeeping operations as of September 2010 were Bangladesh (10, 736), Pakistan (10, 691), India (8, 935), Nigeria (5, 709), Egypt (5, 458), Nepal (5, 044), Jordan (3, 826), Ghana (3, 647), Rwanda (3, 635), Uruguay (2, 489) Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 60

UNIFIL Deployment as of August 2011 Morozov E. M. IIR MEPHI 61